PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE
Some analytical considerations
BY
MARISEN MWALE


THE SELF AND IDENTITY

Adolescents carry with them a sense of who they are and what makes them different from everyone else. This sense of who an individual is and what makes him or her different from others is referred to as self-identity.
Adolescents cling to this identity and develop a sense that the identity is becoming more stable. Real or imagined, an adolescents developing sense of self and uniqueness is a motivating force in life. The two concepts comprising the word self-identity are self and identity.












THE SELF

Early in psychologys history, William James [1890] distinguished two intimately intertwined aspects of the self. The self as subject [the I self] and the self as object [the me self] and there are four major distinctions between the two aspects according to James:

Firstly the I self is the actor or knower, the me self is the object of what is known or ones knowledge of oneself [an empirical aggregate of things objectively known].
Secondly the I self is the active observer, and the me self is the observed [the object of the observing process].
Thirdly the I self conveys the sense of independence, agency, and volition and the me self conveys a sense of dependency.
Forth some researchers refer to the I self as the existential self and the me self as the categorical self.

Development proceeds in a sequence from the existential to the categorical self which is considered a duality according to Lewis and Brooks-Gunn [1979]. That is from a conception that I am, I exist, and to what or who I am [Lapsey & Rice, 1988; Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979]. The task of developing the I self that is the self as subject, is to develop the realization that it is existential in that it exists as separate from others. The me self, namely, the self as object, is referred to as categorical in that the developing child must construct categories by which to define himself or herself [e.g., age and gender labels].

Lewis [1991, 1994] further refers to the I self as subjective self-awareness since when attention is directed away from the self to external objects, people, and events one is the subject of consciousness. In contrast, the idea of me can also be described as objective self-awareness which involves focusing on the self as the object of consciousness. James also identified particular features or components of both the I self and the me self.


Components of the I self include:

1. Self-awareness that is an appreciation for ones internal status, needs, thoughts and emotions.
2. Self-agency that is the sense of the authorship over ones thoughts and actions.
3. Self-continuity that is the sense that one remains the same person over time.
4. Self-coherence that is a stable sense of the self as a single, coherent, bounded entity.

Components of the me self include the:

1. Material me the body as flesh.
2. Social me- the self that interacts with others.
3. Spiritual me- what in theology is considered the soul.




Self-concept and self-esteem

An increasing number of clinicians and developmentalists believe that the core of the selfits basic inner organization, is derived from regularities in experience [Kohut, 1977; Strobe, 1988]. Individuals carry forward a history of experiences with caregivers that provide the adolescent with expectations about whether the world is pleasant or not. And in adolescence, the individual continues to experience the positive or negative affect of social agents.

Despite developmental changes and context changes [increased peer contact, a wider social world] an important feature of the selfs health development is continuity in care-giving and support, especially in the face of environmental challenges and stresses. Many clinicians stress that difficulties in interpersonal relationships derive from low self-esteem, which in turn derives from a lack of nurturance and support [Bowlby, 1988; Erickson, 1968, Rogers, 1961, Sullivan, 1953].











Carl Rogers and Susan Harters views of self concept and self esteem

Carl Rogers and Susan Harters view has been instrumental in promoting the importance of self-concept in the adolescents development and the role of nurturance and support in achieving a health self-concept. Like Sigmund Freud, Rogers and Harter [1961, 1980] began their inquiry about human nature with troubled personalities.

They explored the human potential for change. In the knotted, anxious, defensive verbal stream of his clients, Rogers for instance concluded that individuals are prevented from becoming who they are. Rogers believed that most individuals have considerable difficulty developing their own true feelings which are innately positive. As children grow up significant others condition them to move away from these positive feelings. Parents, siblings, teachers, and peers place constraints on the adolescents behavior. Thus, Rogers believed that adolescents are the victims of conditional personal/positive regard meaning that love and praise are not given unless the adolescent conforms to parental or social standards. The result, says Rogers, is that the adolescents self esteem is lowered. Through the individuals experience with the world, a self emerges.

Rogers considered the congruency between the real self, that is, the self as it really is as a result of ones experiences, and the ideal self which is the self an individual would like to be. The greater the discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self, the more maladjusted the individual will be, said Rogers. To improve their adjustment, adolescents can develop more positive perceptions of their real self, not worry so much about what others want and increase their positive experiences in the world. In such ways, the adolescents ideal and real self will be more closely aligned. Rogers thought that each adolescent should be valued regardless of the adolescents behavior. Even when the adolescents behavior is obnoxious, below standards of acceptance, or inappropriate, adolescents need the respect, comfort and love of others.

When these positive behaviors are given without contingency, it is known as unconditional personal/positive regard. Rogers strongly believed that unconditional positive regard elevates the adolescents self worth and positive self-regard. Unconditional positive regard is directed at the adolescent as a human being of worth and dignity, not to the adolescents behavior which might not deserve positive regard.
















Strength of perspective

The view sensitized psychologists to the importance of self-perceptions, to the considering of the whole individual and the individuals positive nature, and to the power of self understanding in improving human relations and communication with others.

Weakness

Critics point out that while it is well and good to have a positive view of development, Rogerss view is almost, too optimistic, possibly overestimating the freedom and rationality of individuals. Critics also argue that the approach encourages self love or narcissism. A major weakness is that it is extremely difficult to test scientifically.


In general self concept is the sum total of an individuals feelings and perceptions about one self while self esteem is an evaluation and effective dimension of ones self concept---an evaluation of ones worth.








IDENTITY

Who am I? What am I all about? What is different about me?
Not usually considered during childhood, these questions surface as common, virtually universal, concerns during adolescence. Adolescents clamor for solutions to these questions that revolve around the concept of identity. According to Erickson [1961] in Identity- Youth and Crisis it is necessary to differentiate between personal identity and ego identity.

The conscious feeling of having a personal identity is based on two simultaneous observations- the perception of the self-sameness and continuity of ones existence in time and space and the perception of the fact that others recognize ones sameness and continuity. Ego identity on the other hand concerns more than the mere fact of existence; it is, as it were, the ego quality of this existence.
The ego is the conscious mind of the individual. Ego identity then, in its subjective aspect, is the awareness of the fact that there is a self sameness and continuity to the egos synthesizing methods, the style of ones individuality, and that this style coincides with the sameness and continuity of ones meaning for significant others.








Erickson and Identity

That today we believe identity is a key concept in understanding the lives of adolescents is a result of Erick Ericksons masterful thinking and analysis.
Erickson [1950, 1968] believed identity versus identity/role confusion is the fifth of lifes eight stages occurring at about the same time as adolescence.
During adolescence, world views become important to the individual, who enters what Erickson calls a psychological moratorium----a gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. Like all stages in Ericksons theory the stage is characterized by a conflict with the possibility of bipolar outcomes.

Erickson suggests that the individual must actually experience both sides of the conflict and must learn to subsume them into higher synthesis.
If the conflict is worked out in a constructive, satisfactory manner, the syntonic or positive quality becomes the more dominant part of the ego and enhances further healthy development through the subsequent stages.
For Erickson, the growth of a positive self-concept is directly linked to the psychosocial stage resolution that constitutes the core of the theory.
However, if the conflict persists past its time, or is resolved unsatisfactorily, the dystonic or negative quality is incorporated into the personality structure.

In the case of adolescents, the dystonic or negative attribute will interfere with further development and may manifest itself in impaired self-concept, adjustment problems and possibly psychopathology. In essence this explains the interplay with risk-taking behavior aptly typified by sexual promiscuity and deviance.


SOME CONTEMPORARY THOUGHTS ABOUT IDENTITY

Contemporary views of identity development suggest several important considerations.

First, identity development is a lengthy process, in many instances a more gradual, less cataclysmic/ violent upheaval/abrupt transition than Ericksons term crisis implies.

Second, identity development is extraordinarily complex [Marcia, 1980, 1987]. Identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence. It begins with the appearance of attachment, the development of a sense of self, and the emergence of independence in the family, and reaches its final phase with a life review and integration in old age. Resolution of the identity issue at adolescence does not mean that identity will be stable through the remainder of life. An individual who develops a healthy identity is flexible and adaptive, open to changes in society, in relationships and in careers. This openness assures numerous re-organizations of identitys contents throughout the identity-achieved individuals life.

Third identity formation does not happen neatly and it usually does not happen abruptly. At the bare minimum, it involves commitment to a vocational direction, an ideological stance, and a sexual orientation.
Identity development gets done in bits and pieces.

Decisions are not made once and for all, but have to be made again and again. And the decisions may seem trivial at the time; whom to date, whether or not to break up, whether or not to have intercourse, whether or not to use contraceptives.



Marcia on identity

In an extension of Ericksons work James Marcia [1966, 1980, 1991] proposed four statuses of adolescent identity formation, which characterize the search for an identity- identity achievement, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and moratorium. The four kinds of identities are possible combinations of yes-no answers to two questions:

Has the person engaged in an active search for identity?
Has the person made commitments? [for example, to values, to school, to a job or career path, to who he or she wants to be as a person, or to other aspects of his or her identity]

Diffusion

Diffusion literally means confusion. The individual hasnt really started thinking about issues seriously, let alone formulated goals, or made any commitments and this represents the least mature statuse. Lacking direction; unconcerned about political, religious, moral, or even occupational issues; does things without questioning why; unconcerned why others do what they are doing.


Foreclosure

Foreclosure literally means adopting anothers position without forethought.
The individual has avoided the uncertainties and anxieties of crisis by quickly and prematurely committing to safe and conventional goals and beliefs. Commitment to occupation and various ideological positions; little evidence of the process of self construction; adopted the values of others without seriously searching and questioning; foreclosed on the possibility of achieving own identity. Alternatives havent been seriously considered.


Moratorium

Moratorium literally means a delay. The individual is at the height of the crisis and as described by Erickson, decisions about identity are postponed while the individual tries out alternative identities without committing to any particular one. Currently experiencing an identity crisis or turning point; no clear commitments to society; no clear sense of identity; actively trying to achieve identity.

Identity achievement

Achievement literally means success. The individual has experienced a crisis but has emerged successful with firm commitment to goals and ideologies.
Firm and secure sense of self; commitments to occupation, religion, thought and cultural ideology, beliefs about sex roles and the like; the views, beliefs, and values of others have been considered but own resolution reached.

This represents the most mature statuse. According to Kalat [1990] the individual has experienced several crises in exploring and choosing between lifes alternatives but finally arrived at a commitment or investment of the self in those choices. Although identity moratorium is a prerequisite for identity achievement, Marcia doesnt see the four statuses as Erickson type stages.

An illustration of the answers to the two aforementioned questions resulting in categorization into a statuse may be as below:




Has the person made commitments to values?

Has the person YES NO
engaged in an active
search for identity?

YES Identity achievement Moratorium


NO Foreclosure Identity diffusion





SEXUALITY AND ACHIVEMENT

Among the many developmental events that characterize puberty and the onset of adolescence, none is more dramatic, or more challenging to the young persons emerging sense of identity, than the changes associated with sexual development. Bodily dimensions of boys and girls become increasingly differentiated, as boys develop broader shoulders and show a greater overall gain in muscle development, and girls undergo breast development and develop more rounded hips [Conger, 1984]. Girls experience their first menstruation and boys their first ejaculation.
In both sexes genital organs- the penis and scrotum in boys, the clitoris, vagina, and labia in girls- increase in size, and pubic hair develops.
All of these physical changes require new adjustments on the part of the young person and lead to a changing self-image.

Furthermore, although sexuality in the broadest sense is a lifelong part of being human, the hormonal changes that accompany puberty lead to stronger sexual feelings, although there may be considerable diversity in the ways these feelings are expressed in different individuals and in the same individual at different times. Adolescents may find themselves thinking more about sex, getting sexually aroused more easily, even at times feeling preoccupied with sex. Or they may find themselves excited by and involved in other interests, and not be particularly aware of sexual feelings. At the same age, one adolescent may be involved in sexual experimentation, another may not; one may be in love and going steady, another may feel that it is much too early for such commitments and may prefer to play the field.

Despite such individual variations, integrating sexuality meaningfully, and with as little conflict and disruption as possible, with other aspects of the young persons developing sense of self and of relations with others is a major developmental task for both boys and girls.

How adequately this task is ultimately handled- the extent to which it becomes a source of joy or despair, of challenge and success, or failure and defeat- depends on many factors, ranging from the complexities of early parent-child relationships to contemporary social standards and values [Conger, 1984]. In terms of a cross-cultural perspective, in a recent investigation by Daniel Offer and his colleagues [1988] , the sexual attitudes of adolescents in 10 countries were sampled: Australia, Bangladesh, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, Turkey, and the United States. Adolescents in two countries- Turkey and Taiwan- showed extremely conservative attitudes toward sex.

In traditional cultures such as Turkey and Taiwan, adolescents feel very uncomfortable about sex and feel extremely anxious about it. Nonetheless, in all of the countries studied, having a boyfriend or a girlfriend was viewed as important by the adolescents, especially in West Germany [where 82% rated this important compared to only 73% of the United States adolescents]. Blum [1945] contends that sexual maturity brings in its wake a wave of disturbances not only in the sexual realm but also in the broader phenomena of social behavior. The adolescent, flooded by his own resurgent impulses, must regroup the defensive forces of his ego in an attempt to meet his new onslaught.

According to psychoanalytic theory, individuals at any age may experience an inability to handle impulses, subdue anxiety or to delay gratification, but the maturation of sexual impulses, makes adolescence especially stressful.
A review of research [Swanson, 1996; Roger, 1969; Hill, 1998; Hendry, 2001] suggests that adolescent girls experience more emotional disturbances about sexuality than boys. However, Fiedenberg [1996] believes boys are more emotional and female less emotional than commonly believed.
Boys are moodier, more intense, and more mystical almost.

If either sex experiences stress due to sexuality, the question is what sort of help is required? Is it society itself that needs adjustment for its failure to provide a suitable niche? Sexuality in definition is an aspect of self-referring to ones erotic thoughts, actions and orientation. As children acquire knowledge about male and female and about the roles sexuality expects them, they also become increasingly aware of their own sexuality. During adolescence, the lives of males and females become dominated by sexuality. Sexuality as may be noted, involves the development of sexual identity, attitudes and sexual behavior.

Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration, experimentation and investigation into sexual fantasies and realities. Adolescents have high curiosity about their sexuality. They continually think about whether they are sexually attractive, whether anyone will love them or whether they will ever have children or whether it is normal to have sex. For most adolescents sexual experiences can be both enjoyable and painful. However what is important is the development of correct sexual attitudes and responsible sexual behavior among adolescents. The development of correct sexual attitudes and behavior among adolescents is critical, because adolescents should be able to act responsibly and prevent themselves from the negative effects of sex such as unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted disease and other social-moral problems.


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