PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS:

SOME INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS-

BY

MARISEN MWALE

Brief introduction to Psychology

Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. In other words it has its roots in Philosophy. With the passage of time, psychology has undergone a transformation from concern with sheer speculation as is the case with philosophy to a concern with scientific procedure. The emergency of psychology as a separate discipline is generally dated at 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt and his co-workers were attempting to investigate the mind through introspection [observing and analyzing the structure of their own conscious mental processes]. The emphasis on measurement and control used in introspection marked the separation of psychology from its parent discipline of philosophy. Introspectionism was challenged by the early twentieth century particularly by an American psychologist, John B. Watson who believed that the results of introspection could never be proved or disproved. Consequently, Watson [1913] proposed that psychologists should confine themselves to studying behavior, since only this is measurable and observable by more than one person.

Watsons form of psychology was known as behaviorism. A reaction against both introspection OR structuralism and behaviorism came from the gestalt school of psychology, which emerged in the 1920s in Australia and Germany. Gestalt psychologists were mainly interested in perception, and believed that perceptions couldnt be broken down in the way that Wundt proposed. The gradual divergence of this subject from philosophy to science has been responsible for the change in its meaning from time to time.

Definition

The word psychology is derived from Greek psyche [mind, soul or spirit] and logos [discourse or study]. Literally, then, psychology is the study of the mind. In simple terms Psychology can be defined as the science of mind and behaviour.

It concerns itself with how and why organisms do what they do.

Why birds sing

Why some insects fly and not others

Why plants transpire

Why children learn

All these are behaviours and psychology is the science that studies them.

According to Bernstein [2000] Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes and applies that understanding in the service of human welfare.

Goals of Psychology

The goals of Psychology are similar to those of any other science.

To describe

After observing and measuring behaviour and mental processes the psychologist has to describe the aforementioned.

To explain

The meaning of data collected in study.

Quite often, psychologists explain data by formulating a theory.

A theory is a coherent group of assumptions that can explain data.

To predict

Behaviour and mental processes by using a set of circumstances to anticipate what will happen next.

To use

Utilization or application of the knowledge gained through study to promote human welfare.

Meaning of the term behaviour

The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting a wide and comprehensive meaning:

Any manifestation of life is activity says Woodworth [1948] and behaviour is a collective name for these activities.

The term behaviour therefore includes all the motor or conative activities [like walking, swimming, dancing etc], cognitive activities

[like thinking, reasoning, imagining etc], and affective activities

[ like feeling happy, sad, angry etc].

It also includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the subconscious and unconscious. Consequently, it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.

It is not limited to the study of human behaviour. The behaviour of animals, insects, birds and plants is also covered in psychology.

In a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living organisms.

Nature of Psychology

1. Psychology has both theoretical and applied aspects like any other science.

2. Like any other science psychology believes in cause and effect relationships hence emphasizing that every behaviour has its roots---the factors of its causing and nurturing.

3. Psychology like any other science does not believe in mere heresy. It uses the scientific methods of inquiry----like observation and experimentation in studying behaviour.

4. What is established and discovered in science is always open to verification and alteration---tentative and subject to change. The same is true with psychology.

5. Like any other science the established facts, laws and principles of psychology enjoy universal applicability.

Methods of research in psychology

Naturalistic observation

This research paradigm involves observing or studying animals or people in their natural habitats. For example students are best studied in a classroom environment. The researcher does not interfere with the behaviour of the observed to avoid bias. Such observer bias is also denoted the guinea pig effect or the Pygmalion effect.

Case study

With the purpose of generating hypothesis psychologists examine an individuals personal life, such as how a teacher plans a lesson.

Survey

This method uses questionnaires administered to samples of people from what is referred to as a population to find out about attitudes and behaviour.

First identify the group of subjects he/she may wish to survey- population.

Second select the subjects to participate in the survey at random- sample.

This ensures that every subject or respondent is given an equal chance of being involved in the study.

Correlational study

In this research paradigm psychologists consider the relationship between two or more variables which can either be positive or negative. A correlation coefficient is computed to establish either a positive or negative relationship between the variables under study. Once an association between variables is established, it becomes possible for one to predict important events with regard to the variables. Many variables can be studied using this method. However, it should be remembered that correlation does not mean causality. Correlation cannot establish cause and effect but can only predict.

Experimentation

In this research paradigm psychologists treat an object of study in a specific way and then observe the effects of that treatment. Whereas correlational research only predicts about behaviour experiments can be able to establish cause and effect------that is roots and nurturance of behaviour. In experiments, psychologists study animals as well as people. Animals are studied either out of interest in animals themselves or as models for human behaviour. This may create misconceptions two of which are:

Anthropomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat animals as if they have human characteristics.

Rattomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat human beings as if they were rats.

What kind of science is Psychology

Psychology is a behavioural science. Unlike the natural sciences of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics which are concerned with matter-----Psychology deals with the behaviour of organisms. And behaviour is quite dynamic and unpredictable.

Scope of Psychology

The scope of a subject denotes

Its limits of operation as well as its branches.

Psychology is divided into two major branches which have their sub-branches and these are applied psychology and pure psychology.

Branches of pure psychology

General psychology

Abnormal psychology

Social psychology

Experimental psychology

Physiological psychology

Para-psychology

Geo-psychology

Developmental psychology

Branches of Applied psychology

Concerned with the application of theories, principles and techniques of psychology includes:

Clinical psychology

Industrial psychology

Legal psychology

Military psychology

Political psychology

Organizational psychology

Marketing psychology

Educational psychology

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Simply put Educational psychology is the study of the learner, learning and teaching. In some more comprehensive way it is the study of the ways in which the learner can most effectively be brought into successful interaction with the material to be learnt, the learning situation and the teacher who provides the learning opportunity.

The roles of Educational Psychology in the teaching/learning process

1. To understand how learning processes can be effectively guided by taking into account the special circumstances of the students setting.

2. To determine how teaching can be made more effective, how educational goals can be made more meaningful, and how desirable educational goals can be achieved.

3. To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may be needed to make learning more relevant to the cultural setting.

4. To help solve learning problems and select suitable materials that relate to the students background.

5. To guide or indicate how children can receive social learning and how they should be challenged to perform social services that may develop their community.

Focal areas of Educational Psychology

The learner

The learning process

The learning situation

The learner

Is the most important of the three elements. Not only because people are more important than processes or situations, but primarily because without the learner there is no teaching. The learner is the focus of any teaching. It is obvious that, unless someone is learning there is no teaching, just as there is no selling unless someone is buying. The word Learner is used for persons who individually or collectively comprise the class and on whose behalf educational programmes exist and operate.

Factors considered when a teacher focuses on learners include:

Family background

Prior knowledge

Motivation

Developmental level

Interests

Attitude

All these factors influence how learners acquire knowledge.

The learning process

Is next in order of importance. It refers to the process by which people change their behaviour, improve performance, reorganize their thinking or become familiar with new concepts and information.

Important aspects of this element include:

When people learn, the change in their behaviour may not be directly observed [perceiving, thinking, remembering and identifying] or it may be observed [writing, attending and talking].

Learning is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues in some form or another until one dies.

Learning can be explained in terms of what happens when students learn, why and how they learn, what teachers want them to learn and why they learn what teachers do not want them to learn.

The learning situation

Refers to the environment where learners find themselves and where the learning process takes place. Some parts of the environment may be immediate such as the classrooms and the library. Other aspects may be remote but relevant, such as the relationship between the school committee and the head teacher.

Importance of Educational psychology to teachers

Educational psychology serves as a foundation discipline in education in the same way that physical science serves engineering [Gage, Berliner, 1999].

Educational psychology serves as a guideline to educational practice.

For example it offers important ideas about learning and about the influences that families, business, industry and the community have on learning.

In very specific ways Educational psychology may help a teacher to:

Understand the nature of the learner and the learning process. This means taking into consideration growth and development patterns of learners to maximize learning opportunities.

Understand the many variables that interact as learning takes place in the classroom.

This ensures greater understanding of the learning environment to help pupils achieve their best,

Understand the role of the teacher in the classroom in view of the social interactions within the classroom and other psychological variables that affect social behaviour.

Structure subject matter, learn how materials are transferred in teaching and evaluate what has been taught.

Understand oneself as both a teacher and a person which is necessary so that a teacher controls role conflict.

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