PROCESS IMPROVEMENT MODELCASE OF - MACRO LILONGWE BRANCHLEVELS OF THE PROCESS IMPROVEMENT MODELSTEP 1- DEFINING THE PROCESSMethodology: Process AnalysisRationale: To analyze and identify pertinent processes.IntroductionMalawi AIDS Counseling and Resource Organization [MACRO] is a local NGO established in April 1995 with a mission purpose to provide Voluntary HIV Counseling and Testing [VCT] services and other HIV related support services to individuals, families and communities in order to reduce transmission of HIV and impact of HIV and AIDS in Malawi. MACRO has gone through several structural changes having been founded in 1992 as LACE then transforming into BACE in 1994.Strategic ObjectivesThe main MACRO strategic objectives include the following: To provide HIV and AIDS related training services. To increase access and availability of VCT and other HIV-related support. To improve the quality of VCT and other HIV-related support services. To increase demand for VCT and other HIV-related support services.Program goalsThe goals of MACRO HIV and AIDS Program are two-fold namely: To accelerate access and availability of VCT, treatment, care and support services. To reduce new HIV infection and impact of HIV and AIDS among individuals, families and communities in Malawi.MACRO provides its services through 6 static sites namely Karonga, Mzuzu, Kasungu, Lilongwe, Zomba and Blantyre. It also provides services through outreach and mobile sites across the country using motor vehicle, motor cycle and Van. MACRO has also borrowed the moonlight VCT from other countries where clients patronize services at night but this service is being piloted in Karonga. MACRO secretariat located in Lilongwe coordinates all the branches. The population targeted includes couples, ordinary people, high profile individuals, youth, high risk behavioral groups, etc. Overtime MACRO has realized that the urban population is reducing in terms of VCT uptake possibly attributable to saturation of the population by static sites and as such strategies to use mobile van, moonlight and outreach programs have been intensified to target the rural community [MACRO Annual Report, 2009].BackgroundAccording to annual reports reviewed [2007, 2008, and 2009] the annual rates of VCT uptake were tagged at, 102% [2007], 107% [2008] and 55% [2009] respectively. The rate is calculated against the annual target which fluctuates every year. It is calculated by computing the percentile of the total number of tested and counseled clients against the organizational target per annum. In 2007 for instance a total of 129, 968 clients were tested and counseled against the organizational target of 127, 691 thus representing 102% of the target, an increase of 74% from 2006. In 2009 on the other hand, 148,887 clients were tested and counseled against the organizational target of 271,410 representing 55% of the target a decrease of 52% from 2008 which registered a rate of 107%. Several factors contribute towards the overall uptake rate per annum- some structural or functional and others client related with dichotomies and disparities evident for example in patronage when comparisons are made between male and female clients.Program processes - MACRO1. Provision of VCT [static, mobile, outreach]2. Quality Assurance control in HIV testing3. Infection prevention through sensitization programs4. Outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns5. Data collection and reporting6. Client counseling, testing and registrationSelected process- Female VCT uptakeIf we improve this process what will be the impact on Customer satisfaction- Female clients will be motivated to uptake VCT. Satisfaction of other stakeholders- Controllers will be more keen to fundprograms having pinpointed the gap. Waste- Resources will be utilized to improve other processes. Compliance with technical standards- MACRO 50/50 policy, National HIV Prevention Strategy [2009-2013] 5.2 Strategic Objective 2. Broad Activity [b]- Scale up HTC in hard to reach areas in all the districts through door to door, outreach and mobile approaches.Customers- Female VCT clientsProducts and services- Outreach testing, mobile testing, collaborative[Ante-natal, PMTCT] testing, ART, condom access.Customers wants/needs- Accessibility, confidentiality, respect and dignity,privacy.Other stakeholdersControllers PACT Malawi NAC CDC Board of TrusteesSuppliers MOH- DHO UNFPAProviders Secretariat Branch Managers Counselors Monitoring and Evaluation specialist Data Analysts BLM SDA FAIR DAPP Hunger project Johns Hopkins [Bridge project] MOE [Theatre for change] Local Government Welcome Trust Dignitus International Post-test clubsQualification of existing processFemale VCT Uptake Female client arrives at site [static, mobile, or outreach] Female client registers Counselor provides pre-test counseling Counselor takes blood sample Testing is conducted using test kit Counselor provides post test counselingSTEP 2 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTMethodology: Analysis of Reports [Quarterly & Annual], Customer FGDRationale: To qualify and quantify performance measurements.Gaps gleaned and teased out in the MACRO report reviews [2007, 2008, 2009]Three major gaps were identified from the review exercise namely:1. Low couple VCT patronageIn 2007, irrespective of the overall high uptake rate registering an overwhelming 102%, only 6% of project beneficiaries in counseling and testing were couples irrespective of an expected higher rate. This increased by only 1% to 7% in 2008 irrespective of drastic measures put in place to ameliorate the anomaly against an overall uptake rate of 107%.2. Low female VCT patronage compared to their male counterpartsIn 2008, 46% of project beneficiaries in counseling and testing were females with a decline to 41% against 59% of their male counterparts in 2009 which fell short of a targeted 50-50 percentile and was rather contrary to the expected higher female patronage considering the fact that over 52% of the entire Malawian population are females.The reviewed reports document that when focus group discussions were conducted with female samples in a bid to delineate factors that act as barrier or de-motivate women from uptaking VCT the following variables cropped up: Long distances to testing centers Stigma Fear of a positive serostatus The need to seek permission from their male counterparts [either partner or husband].In 2007 these results were used to redesign the strategies to address their concerns culminating in an uptake increase of 39% by the end of the reporting period respectively.In 2009 the major factor documented as determining the significantly lower female patronage rate relative to the male clients was: Long distances to service centers.According to the focus group discussions women found it difficult to walk long distances in search for VCT services because of the reproductive, productive and community roles that they are expected to handle in their respective homes.In 2008 MACRO introduced the following activities to address gender concerns: Collaborations with ante-natal clinics during outreach testing targeting females who are exposed to HIV testing messages with the approach seeing more female patronage at the time. Couple counseling: counselors were trained to provide couple counseling with information being provided to both males and females to encourage individuals to bring their partners. Partner disclosure: individuals were encouraged to disclose results to their partners after testing. This was due to discordance results. Thus the partner would encourage the other to also come for testing. Regular outreach visits to women social and religious groups for HIV and AIDS Education, Information and Education which focused on the benefits of VCT and PMTCT were integrated into the program. These activities assisted in addressing concerns in the communities such as stigma and discrimination, giving out HIV information and disclosure problems.Project Performance measurement [Case of Lilongwe Branch]Reporting period: 1st October- 31st December 2010Objective 1: Increase availability of and access to VCT and other HIV-related support services.Activity specification: Conduct HIV counseling and testing.VCT uptake decreased from 6, 676 in the previous quarter to 5, 993 in this current quarter representing a 10% decrease. Referencing the quarterly project target for Lilongwe Branch tagged at 10, 350; the total number of clients tested and counseled during the quarter represents an achievement of 58%.Uptake by genderWhen analysis is conducted across gender lines for the quarter in perspective, out of the total number tested and counseled, 2, 438 were female representing 41% of the overall, against 3, 555 of their male counterparts represented by, 68% respectively. The former has remained constant from the previous quarter [this gap of low female patronage compared to male counterparts is evident across MACRO and is rather contrary to the expected higher female patronage considering the fact that over 52% of the entire Malawian population is female].Outreach testing programs implemented in the quarter in perspective continued to make services accessible and affordable to female clients with 71% of those seen at outreach sites being female. On the other hand the static site saw increased female patronage with 32.5% tested and counseled [considering the outreach and static statistics another gap emerges though indirectly- low couple patronage].Suggested branch level solution to gap- low female uptakeTo improve women uptake of VCT services, deliberate effort must be made to integrate VCT with other women services at community level, including PMTCT and antenatal services through collaboration with NGOs and/or CBOs providing these services.Problem statement:From 1st July to 31st December 2010 the female uptake rate for VCT at MACRO Lilongwe branch was 41% which is lower than the expected target [50%] considering the fact that over 52% of the Malawian population is female.Improvement objective:We intend to improve the female uptake of VCT at Lilongwe Branch from 41% to 45% by the end of December 2011.STEP 3 -ACOVMethodology: Analysis of Causes of Variation [ACOV]Rationale: ACOV helps identify and qualify causes of variation.Causes of variation- Case of Lilongwe branch [OCT-DEC 2010 quarter] Scaling down of activities: mobile and outreach VCT activities were scaled down because of the use of the only vehicle and motor cycles on the MDHS thus significantly reducing the impact of services to rural and mobile communities. Inadequate condom supply: the condom supply chain is unreliable with need to accommodate procurement of condoms in the MACRO budget since the supply from the DHO is limited. Apart from being another support service condom supply can attract clients by default to VCT services but can also be used by community campaigners as in post-test clubs to motivate others to come for VCT. Inadequate BCC materials: BCC materials are inadequate underscoring the need to produce own materials since these are one of the most effective sensitization tools that can reach a wider spectrum of the populace and attract more clients to screen for HIV through VCT. Inadequate supply of drugs: inadequate supply of drugs for STIs, OIs, other HIV related illnesses and for palliative care is a big challenge since most clients are diagnostically lured by the availability of and access to treatment if they may test positive. Not only that, those who are already enrolled and are accessing treatment may be demotivated and drop off with negative ramifications on compliance. QA system not fully implemented: although, the QA system is functional, the activities involved were not fully implemented in the quarter. Exit interviews and client satisfaction surveys were not conducted underscoring the need to draw general guidelines on conducting these specialized QA activities. Lack of outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns: there is need to revive outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns which were not conducted in the quarter due to financial constraints. Vehicle problems: frequent vehicle breakdowns and problems with servicing old vehicles which are expensive to maintain hampered project implementation.CAUSES OF VARIATION [GENERAL VCT UPTAKE]Findings from PROCESS ANALYSIS stakeholder consultation[21 Jan- 2 Feb]Staffing Attitude of service providers- some service providers have negative attitudes which tend to demotivated would be clients. Lack of confidentiality- some service providers disclose the test results of clients and this lack of confidentiality prompts clients to fear for their privacy and shun away from testing. Lack of motivation- due to uncertainties and organizational constraints some service providers lack motivation with implications on provision of quality services.Structural Poor timing of services- Most VCT services are provided during working hours only and during working days in the week, making it difficult for couples to go together for HIV testing [men are mostly at work during the day ]. This underscores the need to revive and intensify services such as moonlight. Lack of other unique and supportive services- women may patronize more hospital or health center based services because they are mostly associated with reproductive health issues e.g., PMTCT, antenatal and family planning services and also because they combine other unique and supportive programs as early infant diagnosis and the CD4 count highlighting the need to diversify and incorporate other such services. Problematic program designs- some program designs might not necessarily be taking into consideration various needs of the population by not necessarily being gender friendly [gender blind] or youth friendly or targeting the most at risk populations e.g., CSW. Poor location of some centers- some centers are located in crowded environments and because of poor location people are likely to be ashamed of patronizing such centers since they fear for their privacy and confidentiality. Lack of adequate community structures- lack of or inadequate community structures e.g., volunteers and CBOs resulting in low direct community sensitization.Technical Lack of equipment stock outs of HIV testing kits may demotivated people who might have come for VCT at such a time and may never consider to go for a test again.Programmatic Inadequate targeting of communities- more communities still remain underserved in remote rural areas calling for a scale up to VCT services within the regions. There is more competition in the urban environ with several organizations involved in HTC leading to the saturation of the urban sphere- e.g., Lighthouse, Partners in Hope, BLM, MANASO etc. Missed opportunities- unstrategic selection of outreach and mobile sites leads to missed opportunities and hence partenering with organizations such as Malawi Interfaith and MOH may lead to the extension of programs to areas like churches where couples might be readily targeted.Customer based Accessibility- long distances to service centers has been leading to some form of cost-benefit analysis with VCT being traded off against productive, reproductive and other feminine roles with implications on female uptake underscoring the need to scale up female friendly services such as outreach and mobile. Low risk perception- low risk perception among the youth [15-24 age group] has resulted in lower uptake rates within the age group underscoring the need for more youth focused outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns. Fear of stigma and discrimination- most would be clients still fear the stigma and discrimination of a positive sero-status. Gender-related constraints- women need to seek permission from their husbands and girls their partners to access VCT services because they have no power to decide their fate in the home unless the husband agrees due to gender related sterio-types which are rather retrogressive and affect the turnout of women and girls for VCT. Lack of motivation and incentive- general lack of motivation and the incentive to screen for VCT among the general populace with HTC being perceived as irrelevant is greatly hampering efforts to scale up and utilize the strategy in preventing further transmission of HIV/AIDS.Categorization of causes of variation [Wen- 9/2/11]TNP model [T & P]Structural Poor timing of services [T] -1 Lack of other unique and supportive services [P] -2 Problematic program designs [P] -3Programmatic Missed opportunities [P] -4 Lack of outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns [T] -5 QA system not fully implemented [P] -6 Scaling down of activities [T] -7 Vehicle problems [T] -8Service provider based Attitude of service providers [T] -9 Lack of confidentiality [T] -10 Lack of motivation [T] -11Customer based Low risk perception [P] -12 Gender-related constraints [P] -13 Lack of motivation and incentive [P] -14 Accessibility [T] -15 Fear of stigma and discrimination [T] -16TPN model [N]Supplies Inadequate condom supply [N] -17 Inadequate BCC material [N] -18 Inadequate supply of drugs [N] -19 Stock outs of HIV test kits [N] -20Structural Poor location of some centers [N] -21 Lack of adequate community structures [N] -22Programmatic Inadequate targeting of communities [N] -23CAUSES OF VARIATION [FISHBONE DIAGRAMMING]Multi-voting to select critical causes of variation Mon 14/02/11COV VotesF M M MeanPoor timing of services 4 3 3 3Lack of outreach mobilization and publicity campaigns 5 5 5 5Vehicle problems 3 5 5 4.5Attitude of service providers 3 3 3 3Lack of confidentiality 3 5 2 3Lack of motivation 1 2 3 2Accessibility 4 4 4 4Fear of stigma and discrimination 2 4 2 2.55 4.5 4SELECTED COV- Lack of outreach/Vehicle problems/AccessibilityKey1- Not significant2- Fairly significant3- Significant4- Strongly significant5- Extremely significantSTEP 4- PLANNINGPROCESS IMPROVEMENT PLANMethodology: Development of Logical Framework [ Work Breakdown Structure] Fri 18/02/2011Rationale: Document- Activities, task dependencies, schedule, indicators,deliverables [etc].GOAL- To increase female VCT uptake.Specific Objectives Determine factors contributing to the low female VCT uptake by month 1. Develop strategies for process improvement based on feedback from clients by month 6. Implement the process improvement strategy by month 8. Monitor and evaluate female uptake by month 16. Maintain, revise or replicate process model by month 18.Process improvement implementation plan Discussion with Lilongwe Branch staff on the Improvement process including scheduling of Focus Group Discussions with women groups. Conduct FGDs with women groups. Analyze and communicate the FDG findings. Develop strategies for process improvement based on feedback from FGDS. Implement the process improvement strategy. Monitor and evaluate the process improvement. Revision of process model to improve, maintain or replicate.STEP 5- IMPLEMENTATIONCOMMUNICATION OF PLANRationale:TRAINING [IF NECESSARY]Rationale:PROCESS CHANGE INTRODUCTIONRationale:STEP 6- STUDYING IMPROVEMENTMONITORING AND EVALUATION OF PROCESS IMPROVEMENTRationale:STEP 7- ACTIONMODEL MAINTANANCE/ MODIFICATION/ OR REPLICATIONRationale:

FACTORS GENERALLY PERPETRATING THE SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS IN MALAWI AND OTHER HIGH PREVALENCE COUNTRIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA.

BY

MARISEN MWALE: PH FELLOW COM/CDC/PEPFAR

ATTACHED- MACRO SECRETARIAT [LILONGWE]

LECTURER

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING STUDIES

MZUZU UNIVERSITY











HIV/AIDS remains a global health problem of unprecedented dimensions.

Unknown 27 years ago, HIV/AIDS has already caused an estimated 25 million deaths worldwide and has generated profound demographic changes in the most heavily affected countries. According to the Joint United Nations programme on HIV/AIDS, sub-Saharan Africa remains the epicenter of the pandemic and region most heavily affected by HIV/AIDS, accounting for 67% of all people living with HIV globally and for 75% of AIDS deaths in 2007 [UNAIDS, 2008]. Malawi is among the ten sub-Saharan countries with the highest HIV prevalence in the world, estimated at 12% of adults aged 15-49 by the National HIV Prevention Strategy [2009], and pegged at 11.9% by UNAIDS [2008]. Other sub-Saharan countries with highest global prevalence rates include; Swaziland- 26.1%, Lesotho- 23.2%, Botswana- 23.1%, South Africa- 18.1%, Zimbabwe- 15.3%, Namibia- 15.3%, Zambia- 15.2%, Mozambique- 12.2% and Kenya- high but not documented; in such descending order.

Several factors account for the high prevalence rate not only in Malawi in particular but sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Such a constellation of variables range from cultural determinants across the continuum to socio-economic, environmental, psychosocial and other structural determinants. In Malawi culture is one of the most powerful precursors and predisposing factors to contracting HIV and it is interlinked with many other variables in the whole equation. There are several cultural practices across the nation from Nsanje to Chitipa that one can rightly construe as counterproductive relative to the fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Kulowa kufa- a widow cleansing ritual -is practiced in the lower shire. Kusasa/kuchotsa fumbi- sexual cleansing of graduate initiates -is practiced in most parts of the southern region. Chokolo- widow inheritance- is practiced by many ethnic groups across the nation. Chimwanamaye- mutual exchange of wives or girl friends among peers as an expression of good friendship or to strengthen friendship ties- is practiced in certain parts of the southern and central regions. Nhlazi- offering a younger sister to a son in law in appreciation for proper care of the elder sister- is practiced in certain parts of the northern region. Kupimbira- offering in marriage a young girl of unmarriageable age in exchange for material or financial support is practiced in the northern region. Mitala- polygamy- is practiced by several ethnic groups across the nation and lastly Fisi/chipambanjete- a ritual where some men are tasked with anonymously deflowering virgins- is a practice common in both the southern and central regions of the nation. Above all else cultural initiations of adolescents among the Chewa of central Malawi, the Yao of southern Malawi, the Lomwe of southern Malawi and several other ethnic groupings even in the northern region have a bearing in the spread of the pandemic. It is believed adolescents who have been initiated or even circumcised are more likely to be sexually experienced and active compared to those who are not. This is considered the case because the curriculum in traditional initiation rites condones and encourages sexual exploration. Such cultural dynamics as have been highlighted by no means posit not an optimistic overture in this struggle against HIV/AIDS bearing in mind that old traditions die hard with experience having explicitly taught us that many societies vehemently resist change to their long cherished traditional values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

Multiple and concurrent partnership is another factor that is exponentially perpetrating the spread of HIV/AIDS in Malawi and other sub-Saharan high prevalence nations. Especially so among men of economic standing and even those construed as influential, having several partners is seen as prestigious- a sign of machismo, popularity, potency, virility and manhood. This behaviour is considered normative and is even promoted and condoned by women. Faithfulness to one partner is stereotyped as a sign of weakness which is culturally construed to be a resultant of the man having been given love portions by his wife. Women are thus expected to remain faithful but men to philander irrespective of marital status. These attitudes, beliefs and values militate against contemporary preventive philosophies such as zero-grazing or one-love where persons are expected to be faithful to only one partner of their choosing in marriage or otherwise.

Psychologically research has further indicated that most people do not consider themselves to be at risk of infection by HIV either as a function of cognitive processes such as optimism of personal precautions taken or motivational processes such as are a result of wishful thinking. This has been shown to be heightened even against odds of risky sexual debuts or exposure to HIV. Among the youth for instance lack of intra-personal skills to resist social pressure has been shown to exacerbate such confounded risk perception registering a gap in the need to enhance life-options and social skills training in the age group. Skills training for instance self-efficacy training motivates the youth to uphold the belief and confidence in their ability to withstand social pressure vis--vis indulgence in risky sexual behaviours. UNICEF [2006] states that about nine in every ten young people aged 15-19 in sub-Saharan Africa have heard of HIV/AIDS but most are not familiar with the ABCs of prevention- abstinence, being faithful to one partner and use of condoms. This scenario again paints a gloomy and pessimistic picture in the war against AIDS since the youth provide us with a window of hope not only in the area of mitigation but overall curtailing of the pandemic.

A culture of silence also surrounds most reproductive health issues with many parents not comfortable with and considering such sexual issues taboo. Compounding this lack of education is the fact that most young people are left to learn about sex from peers or worse still as already highlighted in the foregoing through initiation rituals where they are exposed to a curricular that perpetrates sexual activity hence fuelling the spread of the pandemic. Many youths are also economically dependent and socially inexperienced and not having been taught or otherwise learnt to protect themselves means being at pernicious risk to the shackles of HIV/AIDS. Psychological egocentrism further fosters and instills a sense of invulnerability among so many teenage youth.

Notwithstanding HIV/AIDS has had several devastating repercussions in Malawi in particular and sub-Saharan Africa in general. First and foremost HIV/AIDS is depleting adult productive capacity with teachers, doctors, lawyers, farmers, engineers and what have you falling prey to the deadly scourge. Secondly, public resources are being drained in no measure comparable to any other plague in history. Especially for the ever dependent economies of Africa and Asia, this has fostered economic underdevelopment and overreliance on western donors further perpetrating the dependency syndrome. Thirdly, relative to life expectancy, gains made previously are drastically being reduced. AIDS is erasing decades of progress made in extending life expectancy which for Malawi is now tagged at around 37 or 40 thereof, whereas it could have been 62 in sub-Saharan Africa in general without AIDS. HIV/AIDS has above all else also put extra pressure on the already limited resources through overtaxing health care facilities, payment of premature death benefits, caring for AIDS orphans and many other liabilities bequeathed. Governments are spending a lot to purchase drugs to curtail opportunistic infections and on ARVs for AIDS patients hence taxing the health sector already overstretched by other tropical diseases as Tuberculosis and Malaria. The question however still remains whether we are fighting a winning battle considering the many variables and factors militating against behavioral change in our cultural, socio-economic as well as psychosocial domains. It might be plausible to bet we still have higher mountains to climb and a long way to go.

References

NAC (2009) National HIV Prevention Strategy [2009-2013]

UNAIDS (2008) Report on the global AIDS epidemic, Geneva.

UNICEF (2006) How does HIV affect young people? http://www.unicef.org.

PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS:

SOME INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS-

BY

MARISEN MWALE

Brief introduction to Psychology

Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. In other words it has its roots in Philosophy. With the passage of time, psychology has undergone a transformation from concern with sheer speculation as is the case with philosophy to a concern with scientific procedure. The emergency of psychology as a separate discipline is generally dated at 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt and his co-workers were attempting to investigate the mind through introspection [observing and analyzing the structure of their own conscious mental processes]. The emphasis on measurement and control used in introspection marked the separation of psychology from its parent discipline of philosophy. Introspectionism was challenged by the early twentieth century particularly by an American psychologist, John B. Watson who believed that the results of introspection could never be proved or disproved. Consequently, Watson [1913] proposed that psychologists should confine themselves to studying behavior, since only this is measurable and observable by more than one person.

Watsons form of psychology was known as behaviorism. A reaction against both introspection OR structuralism and behaviorism came from the gestalt school of psychology, which emerged in the 1920s in Australia and Germany. Gestalt psychologists were mainly interested in perception, and believed that perceptions couldnt be broken down in the way that Wundt proposed. The gradual divergence of this subject from philosophy to science has been responsible for the change in its meaning from time to time.

Definition

The word psychology is derived from Greek psyche [mind, soul or spirit] and logos [discourse or study]. Literally, then, psychology is the study of the mind. In simple terms Psychology can be defined as the science of mind and behaviour.

It concerns itself with how and why organisms do what they do.

Why birds sing

Why some insects fly and not others

Why plants transpire

Why children learn

All these are behaviours and psychology is the science that studies them.

According to Bernstein [2000] Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes and applies that understanding in the service of human welfare.

Goals of Psychology

The goals of Psychology are similar to those of any other science.

To describe

After observing and measuring behaviour and mental processes the psychologist has to describe the aforementioned.

To explain

The meaning of data collected in study.

Quite often, psychologists explain data by formulating a theory.

A theory is a coherent group of assumptions that can explain data.

To predict

Behaviour and mental processes by using a set of circumstances to anticipate what will happen next.

To use

Utilization or application of the knowledge gained through study to promote human welfare.

Meaning of the term behaviour

The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting a wide and comprehensive meaning:

Any manifestation of life is activity says Woodworth [1948] and behaviour is a collective name for these activities.

The term behaviour therefore includes all the motor or conative activities [like walking, swimming, dancing etc], cognitive activities

[like thinking, reasoning, imagining etc], and affective activities

[ like feeling happy, sad, angry etc].

It also includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the subconscious and unconscious. Consequently, it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.

It is not limited to the study of human behaviour. The behaviour of animals, insects, birds and plants is also covered in psychology.

In a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living organisms.

Nature of Psychology

1. Psychology has both theoretical and applied aspects like any other science.

2. Like any other science psychology believes in cause and effect relationships hence emphasizing that every behaviour has its roots---the factors of its causing and nurturing.

3. Psychology like any other science does not believe in mere heresy. It uses the scientific methods of inquiry----like observation and experimentation in studying behaviour.

4. What is established and discovered in science is always open to verification and alteration---tentative and subject to change. The same is true with psychology.

5. Like any other science the established facts, laws and principles of psychology enjoy universal applicability.

Methods of research in psychology

Naturalistic observation

This research paradigm involves observing or studying animals or people in their natural habitats. For example students are best studied in a classroom environment. The researcher does not interfere with the behaviour of the observed to avoid bias. Such observer bias is also denoted the guinea pig effect or the Pygmalion effect.

Case study

With the purpose of generating hypothesis psychologists examine an individuals personal life, such as how a teacher plans a lesson.

Survey

This method uses questionnaires administered to samples of people from what is referred to as a population to find out about attitudes and behaviour.

First identify the group of subjects he/she may wish to survey- population.

Second select the subjects to participate in the survey at random- sample.

This ensures that every subject or respondent is given an equal chance of being involved in the study.

Correlational study

In this research paradigm psychologists consider the relationship between two or more variables which can either be positive or negative. A correlation coefficient is computed to establish either a positive or negative relationship between the variables under study. Once an association between variables is established, it becomes possible for one to predict important events with regard to the variables. Many variables can be studied using this method. However, it should be remembered that correlation does not mean causality. Correlation cannot establish cause and effect but can only predict.

Experimentation

In this research paradigm psychologists treat an object of study in a specific way and then observe the effects of that treatment. Whereas correlational research only predicts about behaviour experiments can be able to establish cause and effect------that is roots and nurturance of behaviour. In experiments, psychologists study animals as well as people. Animals are studied either out of interest in animals themselves or as models for human behaviour. This may create misconceptions two of which are:

Anthropomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat animals as if they have human characteristics.

Rattomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat human beings as if they were rats.

What kind of science is Psychology

Psychology is a behavioural science. Unlike the natural sciences of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics which are concerned with matter-----Psychology deals with the behaviour of organisms. And behaviour is quite dynamic and unpredictable.

Scope of Psychology

The scope of a subject denotes

Its limits of operation as well as its branches.

Psychology is divided into two major branches which have their sub-branches and these are applied psychology and pure psychology.

Branches of pure psychology

General psychology

Abnormal psychology

Social psychology

Experimental psychology

Physiological psychology

Para-psychology

Geo-psychology

Developmental psychology

Branches of Applied psychology

Concerned with the application of theories, principles and techniques of psychology includes:

Clinical psychology

Industrial psychology

Legal psychology

Military psychology

Political psychology

Organizational psychology

Marketing psychology

Educational psychology

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Simply put Educational psychology is the study of the learner, learning and teaching. In some more comprehensive way it is the study of the ways in which the learner can most effectively be brought into successful interaction with the material to be learnt, the learning situation and the teacher who provides the learning opportunity.

The roles of Educational Psychology in the teaching/learning process

1. To understand how learning processes can be effectively guided by taking into account the special circumstances of the students setting.

2. To determine how teaching can be made more effective, how educational goals can be made more meaningful, and how desirable educational goals can be achieved.

3. To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may be needed to make learning more relevant to the cultural setting.

4. To help solve learning problems and select suitable materials that relate to the students background.

5. To guide or indicate how children can receive social learning and how they should be challenged to perform social services that may develop their community.

Focal areas of Educational Psychology

The learner

The learning process

The learning situation

The learner

Is the most important of the three elements. Not only because people are more important than processes or situations, but primarily because without the learner there is no teaching. The learner is the focus of any teaching. It is obvious that, unless someone is learning there is no teaching, just as there is no selling unless someone is buying. The word Learner is used for persons who individually or collectively comprise the class and on whose behalf educational programmes exist and operate.

Factors considered when a teacher focuses on learners include:

Family background

Prior knowledge

Motivation

Developmental level

Interests

Attitude

All these factors influence how learners acquire knowledge.

The learning process

Is next in order of importance. It refers to the process by which people change their behaviour, improve performance, reorganize their thinking or become familiar with new concepts and information.

Important aspects of this element include:

When people learn, the change in their behaviour may not be directly observed [perceiving, thinking, remembering and identifying] or it may be observed [writing, attending and talking].

Learning is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues in some form or another until one dies.

Learning can be explained in terms of what happens when students learn, why and how they learn, what teachers want them to learn and why they learn what teachers do not want them to learn.

The learning situation

Refers to the environment where learners find themselves and where the learning process takes place. Some parts of the environment may be immediate such as the classrooms and the library. Other aspects may be remote but relevant, such as the relationship between the school committee and the head teacher.

Importance of Educational psychology to teachers

Educational psychology serves as a foundation discipline in education in the same way that physical science serves engineering [Gage, Berliner, 1999].

Educational psychology serves as a guideline to educational practice.

For example it offers important ideas about learning and about the influences that families, business, industry and the community have on learning.

In very specific ways Educational psychology may help a teacher to:

Understand the nature of the learner and the learning process. This means taking into consideration growth and development patterns of learners to maximize learning opportunities.

Understand the many variables that interact as learning takes place in the classroom.

This ensures greater understanding of the learning environment to help pupils achieve their best,

Understand the role of the teacher in the classroom in view of the social interactions within the classroom and other psychological variables that affect social behaviour.

Structure subject matter, learn how materials are transferred in teaching and evaluate what has been taught.

Understand oneself as both a teacher and a person which is necessary so that a teacher controls role conflict.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cole, M and Cole, S [1993] The Development of Children. New York:

W.H.Freeman and Co.

Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman

Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;

Kent: Greengate.

Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.

Kaplan, P [1986] Childs Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.

Module [2001] Educational Psychology: Domasi College of

Education.

Mussen, P et al [1980] Essentials of Child Development

and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.

Mwamwenda, S [1990] Educational Psychology: An African Perspective.

Durban. Butterworks.

New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York:

Harper Collins College Publishers.

MARISENS HIV/AIDS BEHAVIOURAL MODIFICATION MODEL
BY MARISEN MWALE

LEVELS OF INTERVENTION

Step 1

Awareness appraisal

Aimed at assessing risk-perception and risk-appraisal [perceived susceptibility].

Address awareness of being at risk, and comprehension of modes of and dynamics of transmission. [Information about risk however is not enough- people may know they are indulging in risky behaviors but not change or downplay the risk- gap between knowledge and subsequent behavior often high].

Question being whether the targeted groups perceive themselves to be at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS or not.

Applicable theory WEISTEIN [1987] Risk-perception theory considers biases as optimistic and social-comparison biases relative to ones risk [due to either cognitive processes- e.g., precautions taken or motivational processes e.g., wishful thinking].

Step 2

Identification of and change of determinants of Behavior

Aimed at risk-reduction and subsequent behavioral change.

Question being what motives there are to change ones current behavior- do the benefits outweigh the barriers- e.g., poverty vs. prostitution, lifestyle vs. status.

Address determinants of behavior like attitudes, cultural and traditional practicies, poverty etc., and implement strategies to mitigate such determinants, their reinforcers, enabling factors and predisposing factors for example through social skills training especially with respect to responding to social pressure to conform to risky behaviors perpetrating the spread of HIV/AIDS e.g., multiple and concurrent partners and related resource and social interventions e.g., financing small-scale micro business ventures and promoting COMMUNITY EFFICACY.

Applicable theories -attitude change- PERSUASION- Traditional Yale approach, The cognitive approach to persuasion [PETTY and CACIOPPO, 1986]- people think about the message, the arguments it makes and [perhaps] the arguments it has left out- it is these thoughts not the message itself that lead to either attitude change or resistance- [in BARON and BYRNE, 1996- SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY],

The elaboration likelihood model [ELM] of persuasion- CENTRAL ROUTE- persuasion occurs when recipients find a message interesting, important or personally relevant and when nothing else [distraction or prior knowledge of the message] prevents them from devoting careful attention to it. In such cases they may examine the message in a careful and thoughtful manner, evaluating the strength or rationality of the arguments it contains. If their reactions are favorable, their attitudes and other cognitive structures may be changed and persuasion occurs. PERIPHERAL ROUTE- under this route persuasion still occurs even if the recipients find the message uninteresting. This may occur when perhaps the message is delivered through something that induces positive feelings, such as a very attractive model or a scene of breathtaking natural beauty. Commonly used by politicians and advertisers who recognize how weak their arguments are to persuade people. They resort to the use of beautiful models, clever slogans or catchy tunes, music bands, drama groups- such subliminal appeals can be quite effective but short lived.











BARRIERS TO ANTICIPATED [ATTITUDE CHANGE]

Reactance- refers to negative reactions to efforts by others to limit our personal freedom by getting us to do what they want us to do. Research has shown that we shift away from the view someone else is advocating to the opposite.

Forewarning- prior knowledge of persuasion intent which provides an opportunity to formulate counter-argument that can lessen the messages impact and also provides us with more time in which to recall relevant facts and information- information that may prove useful in refuting a persuasive message [WOOD, 1984 in BARON and BYRNE, 1996].

Selective avoidance- referring to the tendency to direct our attention away from information that challenges our existing attitudes.












Step 3

Behavioral change maintenance and modification

Aimed at maintenance of new attitudinal and behavioral changes as well as relapse prevention.

Address social skills maintenance, enhancement and further behavioral modification as well as structural factors as social support, community support, as well as the political will and reinforcement of leaders.

Applicable theories SELF-EFFICACY THEORY BANDURA, 1986 and derivatives as well as BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION THEORIES- RELAPSE PREVENTION THEORIES- MARLATT & GORDON, 1985.


In educational interventions we try to change determinants of behavior in order to change behavior, but we also use techniques that influence behavior rather directly, such as commitment procedures and systematic experiences with the behavior followed by feedback and reinforcement. Positive experiences with behavior, in turn, may change psychological determinants of behavior, thus creating reciprocal determinism. [BANDURA, 1986].


The educational interventions should change with each step. The choices that have to be made about the message, the target group, the channel, and the source, will be different, or may even be conflicting, depending on the particular step that is addressed [McGuire, 1985].

Theories for the different steps can suggest techniques, but the actual application of these techniques in the educational intervention requires practical experience, creativity and thorough pretesting [Bartholomew et. al., 1991; Parcel et al., 1989, Schaalma & Kok, 1994].
Summary

Problem- what is the targeted health problem. [Do not develop an intervention for a non-existent problem- pitfall]

Behavior- what is the relationship between the targeted behavior and health problem. [Do not develop an intervention addressing behavior that lacks a clear relationship with the problem, for instance, because that relationship is vague or the problem is mostly determined by environmental factors- pitfall]

Determinants of behavior- what are the determinants of the targeted behavior. [Do not develop an intervention on the basis of misconceived ideas about the determinants of the behavior- pitfall]

Intervention- what is the proposed intervention. [Do not develop an inadequate intervention- for example venturing into BCC while resources are still lacking or insufficient tailoring to the target group- pitfall]

Implementation- how do you intend to implement the intervention. [Do not develop a potentially effective intervention with the wrong implementation- for instance, a school programme on AIDS that is not used because teachers do not agree with the content- pitfall]

Evaluation- how do you evaluate the intervention in terms of success or failure- process, impact and outcome. In terms of process evaluation the central question being was the programme implemented as planned and was the supposed self-efficacy improvement actually realized? In terms of impact evaluation you consider the degree of success or failure of the intervention. In terms of outcome you consider whether the targeted problem has been mitigated although this may take sometime to determine for other problems. [Do not have unjustified satisfaction with an intervention that might not have been evaluated- pitfall]

MORAL REASONING DURING ADOLESCENCE:Some analytical considerationsBYMARISEN MWALEThe issue of rightness and wrongness is a complex phenomenon.Whether a given action is acceptable or unacceptable may depend on many factors including the specific circumstances involved, legal consideration and own personal code of ethics. Moral development is the process by which individuals acquire a sense of right and wrong, to use in evaluating their own actions and the actions of others [Turiel, 1998]. Moral development begins early and continues throughout the life span. Theories of moral development attempt to find answers to moral issues and how children reason or respond to moral dilemmas and how their moral growth is stimulated.PIAGETS THEORYOne of the earliest theories of moral development was put forward by Jean Piaget. Piaget theorized that the way humans think out moral issues depends on their level of cognitive development. In essence there is a direct relationship between cognitive development and moral development. According to Piaget young children are egocentric. That is to say they have difficulty taking others perspective into consideration. This tendency is typical of children below the age of seven or in Piagets pre-operational stage of cognitive development. Children at this age generally believe that rules are inflexible mandates provided by some higher authorities, are arbitrary and cannot be changed. Breaking a rule will automatically lead to punishment.Young children tend to judge the gravity or wrongness of an action depending on how much harm has been made regardless of the motive or intention behind an action. For instance a child who intentionally breaks 1 cup while trying to steal sugar is considered to have committed a lesser offence than another who breaks 15 cups accidentally while opening the cupboard door. Piaget called this kind of morality heteronomous morality or morality that is subject to rules imposed by others where a child shows blind obedience to authority. The child perceives justice as resting in the person of authority; this idea is referred to as ethics of authority. The period is also referred to as moral realism or the morality of constraint, characterized by the view that rules are absolute.After age eight children are able to understand that rules are not absolute but are rather formed through social consensus and are thus subject to change ----are tentative. In the case of infraction or violation of a rule older children are now capable of considering whether the individual acted intentionally---they consider the motive behind the action. Piaget referred to this stage as morality of co-operationthe level at which children understand that people both make up rules and can change the rules, which are now seen as a product of peoples agreements. This stage reflects the change to a social orientation, an ethics of mutual respect. Moral judgments shift from an objective to a subjective orientation: the primary concern is no longer simply the objective amount of damage caused by the immoral act, but the intention or motivation now becomes more important. Children now appreciate the reciprocity of relationships.For Piaget, the highest stage of moral development, characteristic of adolescence, is moral autonomy. Dependent on the attainment of formal or abstract reasoning ability, moral autonomy commonly begins at puberty. In a game situation, like monopoly, chess, dominos- the adolescent reveals interest not only in the rules by which the game is played but also in possible new rules to make the game more interesting or more challenging.KOHLBERGS THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENTKohlberg developed his theory of moral development in the 1950s.Like Piaget, he proposed three levels of moral development. The first level, which he called Pre conventional, is where moral reasoning is based solely on a persons own needs and perceptions. The second level, Conventional is where the expectations of society and law are taken into account. The last level, Post Conventional is where judgments are based on abstract, more personal principles that are not necessarily defined by society rules. Each of these levels is then divided into two stages.Kohlberg used moral dilemmas which required difficult ethical choices to assess the levels of reasoning in children at different ages. He was not especially interested in the specific choices children or adults made but their underlying moral reasoning in those choices.Level 1----- Pre conventional moralityChildren think in terms of external authority. Rules are absolute; acts are wrong because they are punished or right because they are rewarded.Stage 1The punishment obedience orientation Punishment and obedience are an individuals main concerns. The main motivation for obeying a rule is to avoid punishment and achieve gratification. Being right means obeying authority.Stage 2The instrumental-relativist orientation/ Personal reward The individual adopts an orientation of individualism and exchange. Rules are followed if they are in the individuals best interest. Deals and compromises with others are sometimes used to solve problems. Revealing a hedonistic orientation, morally right behavior depends on what satisfies ones own desires. In both stages in level1- the child is egoistic/ a hedonist. Everyone has the right to do what he wants with himself and his possessions, even though his behaviour conflicts with the rights of others.Level 2-----Conventional MoralityJudgments at this stage are based on the conventions of friends, family and society and on their approval.Stage 3The interpersonal-concordance orientation/Good boy or Good girl orientation Moral reasoning is guided by mutual interpersonal expectations and conformity. People try to do what is expected of them. The concern is to meet external social expectation. Concept of right is there but nobody has the right to do evil. Intentions become more important in judging a persons behaviour.Stage 4Authority and social order-maintaining orientation/Law and order orientation Individuals place importance on the social system, including laws, and on fulfilling obligations. There is strong belief in law, order, duty and legitimate authority. The observance of the golden rule------do unto others as you would have others do unto you-----is often the criterion in making moral judgments. Maintaining the established order for its own sake.Level 3------Post conventional moralityMoral thinking involves working out a personal code of ethics or self accepted moral principle. Acceptance of rules is less rigid----one might not comply with some of the societys rules if they conflict with personal ethics.Stage 5The social-contract legalistic orientation People recognize and try to balance the importance of both social contracts and individual rights. Moral behavior reflects a concern for the welfare of the larger community and a desire for community respect. More flexible understanding that we obey rules because they are necessary for social order but the rules could be changed if there were better alternatives.Stage 6The universal-ethical principle orientation/Morality of individual principle and conscience Behaviors conform to internal principles [justice and equality] to avoid self-condemnation and sometimes may violate societys rulesmotivation is feeling right with oneself. Individuals adopt an orientation towards universal principles of justice, which exist regardless of a particular societys rules. Reasoning assumes a conscience that is based on self chosen ethical principles that place the highest value on human life, equality and dignity. Civil disobedience is not out of disrespect for law and order, but out of respect for a morality higher than the existing law. Visionaries or moral leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Nelson Mandela, and Martin Luther displayed this form of morality.Evaluating Kohlbergs theoryKohlbergs theory has generated enormous interest. It is the most nearly complete theory of moral development and psychologists have found that moral development in many situations seems to proceed roughly along the lines Kohlberg suggested even in other cultures such as Turkey and Israel.But the theory has not gone without any criticism. First, the scoring of scenarios is somewhat subjective and can lead to errors of interpretation. Kohlberg used moral dilemmas or scenarios and respondents were categorized into a moral level or stage according to their response to the scenario or moral dilemma. There was no objectivity in such a criteria due to the fact that classifications depended on the researchers perceptions of the response. Second, stages of moral development seem to be less domain general than Kohlbergs theory suggests [Kurtines & Greif, 1974]. The level of peoples responses may vary, depending on the particular scenario to which they respond. In essence given different scenarios or dilemmas, peoples responses may render them classified into different stages which may rather compromise the reliability and validity of the theory. Further, evidence indicates that, contrary to the assumption of stage theories, people may regress to earlier stages of moral reasoning under certain circumstances such as under stress. Third, Kohlbergs own finding that people can regress in their behavior points out the weak link that often exists between thought/reasoning and action/behavior. [Kurtines & Greif].The link between moral thought and moral behaviour is oftenweak thought/reasoning does not necessarily translate intobehaviour. Kohlberg needless to say put too much emphasis onmoral thought than on moral behaviour.Moral judgment/reasoning/thought refers to the intellectualor reasoning ability to evaluate the goodness or rightnessof a course of action in a hypothetical situation. Moral behaviorrefers to the individuals ability in a real life situation to resist thetemptation to commit immoral acts. Someone may indeed nurture ahigher level of moral development, but not act in ways consistent withthat understanding. This inconsistency is an element of cognitivedissonance in social psychology reflecting a discrepancy oftenexisting between attitude/thought/reasoning and subsequentbehaviour. The implication here is therefore that people in essenceoften preach what they themselves do not practice. Forth, the theory was originally validated on a relatively small sample of white, middle-class American males less than 17 years of age.Thus the theory is androgenic or centered on males. Although someinvestigators have found cross-cultural support for Kohlbergs theory,others have found that in certain circumstances, such as the lifestyle ofthe communal Israeli kibbutz what is viewed as a higher level ofmorality differs from the value systems Kohlberg suggested.Apart from that the theory is ethnocentric [perspective biasedtowards ones culture and judging others basing thereof] andeurocentric [that is biased towards the west] where peopleare generally individualistic hence lacking a cosmopolitanperspective. It may therefore not apply in communal or collectivesocieties because of its parochial nature. It is also argued that thescenario or dilemma responses were somewhat based on intuition thatis instinctive knowledge or insight without conscious reasoning. Fifth Kohlberg emphasized on cognitive reasoning about morality but overlooked other aspects of moral maturity such as character and virtue that operate to solve moral problems in everyday life [Walker and Pitts, 1998; Woolfolk, 2000]. The theory does not differentiate between social convention and moral issues in which an example of a convention may be- receive things with both hands and an example ofa moral issue maybe- do not steal. Finally Kohlberg also fails to adequately reflect the connectedness with and concern for others in individuals. Carol Gilligan [1982, 1985] argues that Kohlbergs theory emphasizes a justice perspective that is a focus on the rights of the individual rather than a care perspective that sees people in terms of their connectedness.GILLIGANS ALTERNATIVE TO KOHLBERGS THEORYCarol Gilligan [1982] has proposed one alternative model of moral development arising from the criticisms to Kohlbergs theory. She suggested that women tend to have a different conception of morality than do men.According to Gilligan, whereas men tend to focus on abstract, rational principles such as justice and respect for the rights of others, women tend to view morality more in terms of caring and compassion. They are more concerned with issues of general human welfare and how relationships can contribute to it and be strengthened.In particular women seem better able to show empathy, or the ability to understand how another person feels, when interacting with others. In general men tend to have a more competitive orientation, women a more co-operative orientation. Gilligan conducted several studies before she came up with her stage theory of moral development for women. Unlike Kohlbergs study which used males only, Gilligan used adolescents both girls and boys aged 10-15 in her study. Thus her theory was not androgenic. However like Kohlberg she also used hypothetical dilemmas. One popular dilemma was the story of the porcupine, which went on like this:A porcupine [nungu] was seeking refuge from the cold and asked to share a cave with the mole [mphuko] family. The moles agreed but the cave was too small, such that each time porcupine moved, its spikes scratched the moles. Moles complained bitterly and asked porcupine to leave their cave. But the porcupine refused and instead asked the moles to leave if they felt uncomfortable.When the adolescents were asked what they thought of the situation?Boys were quick to seek justice. Porcupine should leave because that is moles house. But girls looked for solutions that would take care of both of them. They suggested covering the porcupine with a blanket. From this study Gilligan concluded that: Women are more concerned with caring than men. What looks like weakness in women portrays their moral strength- caring is more virtuous than justice.Gilligan like Kohlberg also thinks that moral development has three basic levels. She calls Level 1- preconventional morality, which reflects a concern for self and survival. Level 11- conventional morality, shows a concern for being responsible and caring for others. Level 111- postconventional morality, shows a concern for self and others as interdependent. Gilligan believes that Kohlberg underemphasized the care perspective in the moral development of both males and females and that moralitys highest level for both sexes involves a search for moral equality between oneself and others [Muuss, 1988].BIBLIOGRAPHYBerger, K [1999] The developing Person: Through Childhood andAdolescence. New York: Worth Publishers.Birch, A [1977] Developmental Psychology: From Infancy toAdulthood. Houndsmill: Macmillan.Cole, M [1963] Psychology of Adolescence. New York: HoltReinehart and Winston, inc.Cole, M and Cole, S [1993] The Development of Children. New York: W.H.Freeman and Co.Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman.Elkind, D [1984] Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;Kent: Greengate.Hall, G.S [1904] Adolescence, Englewood Cliffs, and N.J: Prentice Hall.Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.Kaplan, P [1986] Childs Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.Marcia, J [1980] Ego identity development; in J.Adelson Handbook of Adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.Module [2001] Adolescent Psychology: Domasi College ofEducation.Mussen, P et al [1980] Essentials of Child Developmentand Personality. New York: Harper and Row.Muuss, R [1996] Theories of Adolescence, New York: The Mc Graw-Hill.Mwale, M [2008] Behavioural change vis--vis HIV/AIDS Knowledge mismatch among adolescents: The case of some selected schools in Zomba. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 17[4]: 288-299.Mwale, M [2008] Adolescent risk-perception, cognition andself-assessment in relation to the HIV/AIDS pandemic: The Case of some selected schools in Zomba, Malawi, Psychology and Developing Societies, 20 [2]: 229-240.Mwamwenda, S [1990] Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban. Butterworks.New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.Nsamenang, A [2000] Adolescence in Sub-Saharan Africa.Psychology and Developing societies,10[1]: 75-97.Rogers, C [1969] On becoming a person. Boston: HoughtonMifflin.Santrock, J [1990] Adolescence; Duduque: Wm. C. Brown.Szekeres, G [2000] HIV in adolescence; Bulletin of experimental Treatment for AIDS; San Francisco: AIDS Foundation.

ADOLESCENCE AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY:INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONSBYMARISEN MWALEAdolescent psychology is an entity of a major branch of psychology- Developmental psychology which also constitutes Child and Adult psychology. Any concise definition of adolescence falls short of a comprehensive description of the term because every definition reveals the bias or major interest of the author. Often a technical term is invented in order to create a social condition and a social fact and such has been true with respect to the term, Adolescence.As defined by the Websters New Collegiate Dictionary [1977], adolescence refers to the, process of growing up or to the period of life from puberty to maturity. Linguistically as well the word is a Latin word meaning to grow up or to come to maturity. If we start at the beginning as it were and set out to define the term adolescence from a psychological perspective, then immediately two aspects become apparent. First that adolescence as a period cannot even be defined in a way that makes it a period of development independent or immune of human judgment.In other words the question is as to whether adolescence is asocial construction. Second that it usually has to be defined with the sort of ambiguity that has left the door open for rival theories of adolescence [Vaness, 1960].Taking for example, Buhlers [1954] definition which has most likely reached general acceptance among developmental psychologists:Adolescence is an in-between period beginning with the achievement of physiological maturity and ending with the assumption of social maturity- that is with the assumption of social, sexual, economic and legal rights and duties of the adult. The definition is biological at the outset, but except for the word sexual, its termination is entirely in social terms. In other words, the termination of adolescence is subject to the particular customs of the culture- it is cultural specific. Adolescence is thus subject to human judgment. It has the implication that adults can willfully prolong adolescence by decisions about what defines the termination of it.Adolescence as a concept is said to have appeared in literature in the 15th century. Prior to that during the Middle Ages children were treated as miniature adults. Children and adolescents were believed to entertain the same interests as adults and, since they were simply miniature adults, they were treated as such, with strict, harsh discipline. In the Middle Ages neither the adolescent nor the child was given status apart from the adult [Muuss, 1989].During the 18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau offered a more enlightened view of adolescence. Rousseau, a French philosopher, did more than any other individual to restore the belief that a child is not the same as an adult.In Emile [1762], Rousseau argued that treating the child like a miniature adult is not appropriate and is potentially harmful. He believed that children up to the age of 12 or so should be free of adult restrictions and allowed to experience their world naturally, rather than having rigid regulations imposed on them. Social and historical conditions have led a number of writers to argue that adolescence has been invented [Finley, 1985; Hill, 1980; Lapsley, 1988]. While adolescence clearly has biological foundations, nonetheless social and historical occurrences have contributed to the acceptance of adolescence as a transitional time between childhood and adulthood. This is denoted the Inventionist View of adolescence.Adolescence is marked by two significant changes in physical development. First physiological changes or dramatic change in size and shape. Second the inception of puberty.According to G. Stanley Hall [1904], adolescence starts at the age of 12 or 13. In principle, at least, the outset of adolescence can be determined objectively, for example, by the presence of the gonadotropin hormone in the urine. It lasts until anything from 22 to 25 [Kalat, 1990].In other words, its termination is determined by the achievement of the societys criteria of psychological maturity. And so we have a biological definition of the beginning of adolescence and a sociological definition of its termination.A South African psychologist Nsamenang [1996], argues that adolescent psychology has since been a Eurocentric enterprise. This implies, regrettably, that research efforts have so far failed to capture what adolescence truly is in its global context. Instead, scholars have tended to create, or more accurately, to recast, the African or other non-western images of adolescence in the shadow of Euro-American adolescence.Other authorities have more explicitly endeavored to define adolescence:Stone and Church, 1973; Bandura, 1970; Ingersoll, 1981; Sisson, Hersen and Van Hasselt, 1987; Sprinthall and Collins 1988 state that, Adolescence is a stage in a persons life between childhood and adulthood.Crider, Goethais, Kavanaugh and Solomon [1983] state that, Adolescence is usually defined as the period that begins with the onset of puberty and ends somewhere around age eighteen or nineteen.Atwater [1992] states that, Adolescence is the period of rapid growth between childhood and adulthood, including psychological and social development.Hopkins [1993], Defines adolescence as the period between childhood and adulthood with much personal growth- physical, psychological and socialthat gives the period its special place within the field of developmental psychology.Santrock [1993], Defines adolescence as, the developmental period of transition between childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive and social changes.In this context, Biological changes involve physical development. Cognitive changes involve thought, intelligence, and language. Social changes involve relationships with other people in emotions, in personality and in the social context.BOUNDARIES OF ADOLESCENCEAdolescence has been described as a transitional stage with uncertain boundaries. In other words, it is difficult to tell exactly at what ages adolescence begins or endsits inception and termination is difficult to determine. Basically boundaries of adolescence mark the beginning and ending of key factors of development.Atwater [1992] has demarcated the following boundaries: Biological: in this perspective adolescence begins at puberty and ends with the attainment of physical and sexual maturity. Emotional: in this perspective adolescence begins at the beginning of autonomy or independence from parents and ends with the attainment of self-revised personal identity and emotional autonomy. Cognitive: in this perspective adolescence begins with the emergence of logical reasoning, problem solving and decision making skills and ends after attaining adult logical reasoning and autonomous decision making. Interpersonal: in this perspective adolescence begins with the shift from parents to peer orientation and ends with increased capacity for intimacy with peers and adults. Social: in this perspective adolescence begins with entry into personal, family and work roles and ends with the attainment of adult privileges and responsibilities. Educational: in this perspective adolescence begins with entry into secondary school and ends with the completion of college education. Religious: in this perspective adolescence begins with preparation for confirmation and adult baptism and ends with the attainment of adult status in a religious community. Chronological: in this perspective adolescence begins with the attainment of a given age associated with adolescence e.g. teen years and ends with the attainment of a given age associated with adulthood e.g. twenties. Legal: in this perspective adolescence begins with the attainment of juvenile status and ends with the attainment of legal status. Cultural: in this perspective adolescence begins with the training for preparation for ceremonial rites of passage and ends with the ceremonial rites of passage.For practical purposes the beginning of adolescence remains closely associated with the beginning of puberty although it is no longer synonymous with it. It is however difficult to determine its ending since it merges into early adulthood.BIBLIOGRAPHYBerger, K [1999] The developing Person: Through Childhood andAdolescence. New York: Worth Publishers.Birch, A [1977] Developmental Psychology: From Infancy toAdulthood. Houndsmill: Macmillan.Cole, M [1963] Psychology of Adolescence. New York: HoltReinehart and Winston, inc.Cole, M and Cole, S [1993] The Development of Children. New York: W.H.Freeman and Co.Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman.Elkind, D [1984] Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;Kent: Greengate.Hall, G.S [1904] Adolescence, Englewood Cliffs, and N.J: Prentice Hall.Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.Kaplan, P [1986] Childs Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.Marcia, J [1980] Ego identity development; in J.Adelson Handbook of Adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.Module [2001] Adolescent Psychology: Domasi College ofEducation.Mussen, P et al [1980] Essentials of Child Developmentand Personality. New York: Harper and Row.Muuss, R [1996] Theories of Adolescence, New York: The Mc Graw-Hill.Mwale, M [2008] Behavioural change vis--vis HIV/AIDS Knowledge mismatch among adolescents: The case of some selected schools in Zomba. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 17[4]: 288-299.Mwale, M [2008] Adolescent risk-perception, cognition andself-assessment in relation to the HIV/AIDS pandemic: The Case of some selected schools in Zomba, Malawi, Psychology and Developing Societies, 20 [2]: 229-240.Mwamwenda, S [1990] Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban. Butterworks.New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.Nsamenang, A [2000] Adolescence in Sub-Saharan Africa.Psychology and Developing societies,10[1]: 75-97.Rogers, C [1969] On becoming a person. Boston: HoughtonMifflin.Santrock, J [1990] Adolescence; Duduque: Wm. C. Brown.Szekeres, G [2000] HIV in adolescence; Bulletin of experimental Treatment for AIDS; San Francisco: AIDS Foundation.

THEORIES OF ADOLESCENCESome analytical considerationsBYMARISEN MWALEScientists approach the understanding of adolescence from different theoretical perspectives or points of view. As a result there are many theories of adolescent development. However, each theoretical perspective is based on particular assumptions to explain adolescent development. No one single theoretical perspective covers all aspects of adolescence. By examining particular contributions from several theoretical perspectives, one may be able to arrive at a more comprehensive and well-balanced understanding of adolescent behavior [Atwater, 1992].THE BIOLOGICAL-MATURATIONAL THEORIESAssume that adolescence begins with the biological changes accompanying puberty. It is from this assumption that earlier views of adolescence assumed a direct link between biological factors and psychological development.The perspective was pioneered by G. Stanley Hall. Halls theory is probably the earliest formal theory of adolescence- and as such he is dubbed the father of a scientific study of adolescence.Influenced by Darwins evolutionary theory, Hall [1904] argued that each persons psychological development recapitulates [or recaptures] both the biological and cultural evolution of the human species. The notion that ontogeny [i.e. individual development] is a brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogeny [i.e. the evolutionary development of the human race]. In essence ontogeny reflects development from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. On the other hand phylogeny reflects the evolution of man from early man through the traditional primitive man to the modern man.Hall saw adolescence as a time of storm and stress- or sturm and drang which mirrors the volatile history of the human race over the last 2000 years [Gross, 2001]. Halls ideas were published in the two volumes set Adolescence in 1904. The storm and stress label was borrowed from the German writings of Goethe and Schiller, who wrote novels full of idealism, commitment to goals, revolution, passion and feeling. Hall sensed there was a parallel between the themes of the German authors and the psychological development of adolescents.According to Hall, the adolescent period of storm and stress is full of contradictions and wide swings in mood and emotion. Thoughts, feelings, and actions oscillate between humility and conceit, goodness and temptation, and happiness and sadness. One moment, the adolescent may be nasty to a peer, yet in the next moment be extremely nice to her. At one time he may want to be left alone, but shortly thereafter desire to cling to somebody.In sum, G. Stanley Hall views adolescence as a turbulent time charged with conflict [Ross, 1972]- a perspective labeled the storm and stress view of adolescence.Halls analysis of the adolescent years also led him to believe that the time to begin strenuously educating such faculties as civility, scientific thinking, and morality is after the age of 15. However, Halls developmental vision of education rested mainly on highly speculative theory rather than empirical data. While Hall believed systematic methods should be developed to study adolescents, his research efforts usually resorted to the creation of rather weak and unconvincing questionnaires. Even though the quality of his research was suspect, Hall is a giant in the history of understanding adolescent development.It was he who began the theorizing, the systematizing, and the questioning that went beyond mere speculation and philosophy. Indeed, we owe the scientific beginnings of the study of adolescent development to Hall.The concept of adolescence as a period of storm and stress however raises several questions: First, is adolescence particularly stressful, or conspicuously more so than other age periods? Second, if it were conceded that adolescence is stressful, then how stressful is it? Third, is such stress attributable to physical changes that occur, or to societys failure to adapt to adolescents needs? Finally, what special measures, if any should be taken to prevent or alleviate such stress?Hall portrayed changes as so marked and so catastrophic, as to be upsetting.Since Halls time, most writers on adolescence have expressed similar views. For example, Stone and Church [1989] call adolescence a vulnerable period. According to these psychologists, adolescence is characterized by persistent feelings of exaggerated rebelliousness, emotional volatility, feelings that everybody is against one, and intense idealism. Fortunately, Stone and Church do conclude that most adolescents have developed a tough core of security, and an anchorage in reality, that permits them to withstand and thrive in the stresses of this period,Gessell advocates that adolescence as a period is characterized by negativism, introversion and rebellion. Lewin advocates that adolescence is typified by marginality, ideological instability, extremism, expansion and increased differentiation of the life space. Anna Freud (1968) advocates that adolescence is typified by psychological disequilibrium resulting from sexual maturity and arousal of ego-defense mechanisms [e.g. intellectualism, asceticism]. She also viewed adolescence as a state of flux, alternating between periods of high enthusiasm and utter despair between energy and lethargy, between altruism and self-centeredness. For Otto Rank a striving for independence, for Kretschmer and his followers an increase in schizoid characteristics and for Remplan a second period of negativism, followed by ego experimentation and the formation of new self-concept.Despite the significance that Halls view on the study of adolescence had in his day yet many of his ideas have not stood the test of time and not all writers agree that normal adolescence is a period of storm and stress. In his research, Bandura (1964) found that most young people with whom he had contact in the USA were not anxiety ridden and stressful. Bandura felt that the assumption of a tumultuous adolescence was a gross overstatement of fact. He argued that if a society labels its adolescents as teen-agers, and expects them to be rebellious, unpredictable, sloppy, and wild in their behaviour, and if this picture is repeatedly reinforced by the mass media, such cultural expectations may very well force adolescents into the role of the rebel. In this way, a false expectation may serve to instigate and maintain certain role behaviors, in turn, and then reinforce the originally false belief (Bandura, 1964, p. 24). Banduras (1964) main point was that when society presumes adolescence to be a period of radical tension, it runs the risk of creating what he called a self-fulfilling prophecy.The current views on adolescence in addition to that adopt a mediator effects approach. This approach recognizes that the impact of puberty on overall development is mediated by other variables. In other words the experience of adolescence is heavily influenced by ones social and cultural environment [Atwater, 1992].THE ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES [SOCIAL LEARNING AND CONSTRUCTIVIST]Social learning theory consists of rather diverse thoughts that range from Clark Hulls drive reduction theory, to Skinners reinforcement theory to Freuds psychoanalytic theory. Social learning theorys effort in combining such diverse points of view has been described as the merging of the clinically rich psychoanalytic concepts with the scientifically rigorous behaviorists constructs. Clearly, social learning theory is multidimensional/eclectic in that it draws on concepts, hypothesis, and methodology from a variety of different psychological sources.While social learning theory develops its own theoretical constructs, of which modeling and observation are the most important, it draws freely on constructs of behaviorist learning theory, especially reinforcement.But even Skinners concept of direct reinforcement is expanded to include important social dimensions- vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement. Thus the concerns of social learning theorists go far beyond those of the narrow connection between a stimulus and a response and include the contributions of the mother-child [and child-mother] relationships to personality development. This bidirectioal influence [parents to child, but also from child to parents]is a cornerstone of social learning theory.The bidirectionality of social influences, especially that of children themselves being active contributors to their own development, has, under the influence of social learning theory, become a core concept in ecological and contextual theories of development. It apart from that also incorporates the importance of models, the role of cognitive processes, and the imitation of models in the learning process. In addition, the relationship of the individual to the social group and the mutual influences are of unique importance:Individual and group behavior are as inextricably intertwined, both as to cause and effect, that an adequate behavior theory must combine both in a single internally congruent system [Sears, 1951].In short, the realm of investigation, for the social learning theorist is the whole spectrum of socialization processes. These encompass imitation, modeling, instruction, reward and punishment; by which children learn and to which children contribute, often through indirect teaching. The significance of the socializing agents as a source of patterns of behavior has often been neglected in other theories, even though observational and empirical evidence indicate that this social aspect of the learning process is fundamental to socialization and personality development.Albert Bandura, a leading social learning theorist has pioneered the view that cognition [act of knowing], bearing [social conduct] and environment play a primary role in human behavior. Bandura has observed that much of adolescent behavior comes from observational learning, in which adolescents observe and imitate the behavior of their parents, other adults and peers. Furthermore, adolescent learning and behavior are significantly affected by cognitive variables such as competences, encoding strategies, expectances, personal values and self-regulatory systems [self-monitoring and motivation]. Piagets cognitive development theory and the information processing view are two main cognitive theories. Piaget defines adolescence as a stage of transition from the use of concrete operation to the application of formal operation in reasoning. This clearly distinguishes it from puberty which is the period in adolescence which is characterized by physiological changes that end childhood and bring the young person to adult size, shape and sex potential. Robert Havigurst combines the individuals readiness for learning with certain social demands in defining the eight developmental tasks of adolescence.THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIESPioneered by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis- he regarded childhood as the most formative periods of human development. In other words, he believed that the dynamics of personality depend largely on how the sexual instinct [ID] and the ego and superego have been shaped during the formative years of childhood. In the three dimensional or tripartite model of the mind the ID which is biological is the subconscious [that part of the mind of which one is not aware but which can influence ones behaviour] part of the personality or in other words it upholds or represents the pleasure principle.It contains irrational instinctual appetites and impulses. It emphasizes on the immediate gratification of needs for example the sexual impulses and hunger. The EGO which is psychosocial is the reality principle trying and endeavoring to control the ID into reality. Functions to adapt the individual to reality, delays, inhibits, restrains and controls ID demands. The SUPER EGO which is social in nature is the home of norms and ethical values of society and tries to bridge the gap between the ID and EGO. It represents the social-moral component in the personality-represents the ideal rather than the real and strives for perfection. The SUPER EGO has two components- conscience and ego-ideal. The conscience reacts to moral transgression by an individual through feelings of guilty.The ego-ideal produces pride and satisfaction if the individuals behavior conforms to acceptable standards. It is hypothesized that the weakening of the ego as a result of ID demands and the subsequent inability of the Superego to bridge the gap between the ID and Ego has often been cited as the major cause of psychological instability. The Freudian theoretical perspective emphasized that the intensified sex drive and resulting sexual conflicts arouse a lot of anxiety in adolescents. This anxiety in turn produces a variety of defense mechanisms such as repression, intellectualization, and asceticism for coping with stress in adolescence.Central to Freuds psychoanalytic theory is the assumption that human beings have a powerful drive that must be satisfied. As biological creatures, there is a drive in individuals to satisfy or serve these motives, yet society dictates that many of these urges are undesirable and must be retained or controlled. Freud further added that people are unaware that the biological instincts are the driving force behind behaviors. Similarly, Anna Freud, while retaining her fathers developmental approach emphasized an additional view. She believed that adolescence is a special period of turbulence because of the sexual conflicts brought in by puberty.Erickson who also subscribes to the psychoanalytic theories of adolescent development emphasized on eight developmental stages. Santrock emphasized on the past, the developmental course of the environment, unconscious mind and emphasis on conflict. The main weaknesses of the theoretical perspective are too much emphasis on sexuality and the unconscious mind as well as the negative view of human nature.Defense mechanismsAre automatic, unconscious strategies for reducing anxiety.Regression-------return to behavior of an earlier age during stressful times, to try to recapture security.Denial---------refusal to accept feelings and experiences that cause anxiety.Repression-----------blocking from consciousness those feelings and experiences that cause anxiety.Sublimation-------------channeling disturbing sexual or aggressive impulses into acceptable activities such as study, work, sports and hobbies.Projection-----------attributing ones own unacceptable thoughts and motives to another person.Reaction formation-------------say the opposite of what one really feels.Intellectualization------------------participating in abstract intellectual discussion to avoid unpleasant, anxiety producing feelings.Asceticism---------------engagement in more positive academic activities such as study to repress negative impulses.THE CULTURAL-CONTEXT THEORIESPioneered by Margaret Mead in a cultural anthropological standpoint, she implored as to whether adolescence is a biologically determined period of storm and stress as advocated by Hall or simply a reaction to social and cultural conditions. In a bid to resolve the controversy Mead conducted research in Pago Pago- Samoa in the West Indies in 1925. The goal of research was to determine whether adolescent turmoil was a universal product of puberty, and hence biologically determined, or could be modified by culture. In the research she conducted, it was conclusively established that the disturbances which vex our adolescents are ontological or culturally specific and not universal. In essence they are a product of civilization [Muuss, 1996].It has been cited frequently as evidenced that; The turmoil The sexual frustration The storm and stressAssociated with growing up in the United States and considered universal by many of the major developmental psychologists of that time is far from being an inevitable, universal condition, and actually resulted from particular expectations, cultural settings, social environment, and childrearing practices.Meads description of life in Samoa [1928/1950] a life characterized by; Carefree Unpressured Harmonious interpersonal interactions A lack of deep feeling being the very framework of all their attitudes towards life Without jealousy and stress Love and hate, jealousy and revenge, sorrow and bereavement, being a matter of weeksIn a nutshell, Mead described the transition to adulthood as smooth and unencumbered- not affected by conflict. Meads perspective was challenged by an Australian anthropologist, Derek Freeman, in his book titled Margaret Mead and Samoans: The Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth published in 1983. Freeman spent a total of six years in Western Samoa in the 1940s and the 1960s doing his research among the Samoans.According to Freemans [1983] findings, the Samoans were more violent, sexually repressed, and fearful than what Mead had reported. Freeman argued that Mead had been overly concerned with emphasizing the role of culture, rather than biology, in human behavior. Any explanation in biological terms of the presence of storm and stress in American adolescents was totally excluded. The conclusion to which Mead was led by her depiction of Samoa as a negative instance was thus of an extreme order.Instead of arriving at an estimate of the relative strength of biological puberty and cultural patterns, Mead dismissed biology, or nature, as being of no significance whatsoever in accounting for the presence of storm and stress in American adolescence, and claimed the determinism of culture, or nurture, to be absolute [Freeman, 1983, p. 78]. It should be pointed out; however, that Freeman did not conduct his research with the same population that Mead had used in her studies.In their book, Adolescent Psychology: A Developmental View, Sprinthall and Collins [1988] defended Meads work by pointing out that her work gave only a partial picture of Samoan life and her view that cultural norms and expectations help to determine the nature of adolescence has been widely supported by studies in a variety of cultures, and Meads work is still recognized as an important early statement of this idea [p.13]. Ruth Benedict in trying to answer the question: what are the cultural differences that make adolescence a more or less generally difficult experience for young persons in western society:Concluded that the major determinant of the difficulty of adolescence was the extent to which socialization for adulthood was discontinuous in a society.By discontinuous Benedict referred to the necessity for an individual to learn a different set of behaviors, roles and attitudes for adulthood from the set learned in childhood. Lloyd (1985) simplified Benedicts description by pointing out that the Samoan society was a perfect example of a continuous culture and the Western society could be viewed as a discontinuous culture.BIBLIOGRAPHYBerger, K [1999] The developing Person: Through Childhood andAdolescence. New York: Worth Publishers.Birch, A [1977] Developmental Psychology: From Infancy toAdulthood. Houndsmill: Macmillan.Cole, M [1963] Psychology of Adolescence. New York: HoltReinehart and Winston, inc.Cole, M and Cole, S [1993] The Development of Children. New York: W.H.Freeman and Co.Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman.Elkind, D [1984] Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;Kent: Greengate.Hall, G.S [1904] Adolescence, Englewood Cliffs, and N.J: Prentice Hall.Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.Kaplan, P [1986] Childs Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.Marcia, J [1980] Ego identity development; in J.Adelson Handbook of Adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.Module [2001] Adolescent Psychology: Domasi College ofEducation.Mussen, P et al [1980] Essentials of Child Developmentand Personality. New York: Harper and Row.Muuss, R [1996] Theories of Adolescence, New York: The Mc Graw-Hill.Mwale, M [2008] Behavioural change vis--vis HIV/AIDS Knowledge mismatch among adolescents: The case of some selected schools in Zomba. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 17[4]: 288-299.Mwale, M [2008] Adolescent risk-perception, cognition andself-assessment in relation to the HIV/AIDS pandemic: The Case of some selected schools in Zomba, Malawi, Psychology and Developing Societies, 20 [2]: 229-240.Mwamwenda, S [1990] Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban. Butterworks.New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.Nsamenang, A [2000] Adolescence in Sub-Saharan Africa.Psychology and Developing societies,10[1]: 75-97.Rogers, C [1969] On becoming a person. Boston: HoughtonMifflin.Santrock, J [1990] Adolescence; Duduque: Wm. C. Brown.Szekeres, G [2000] HIV in adolescence; Bulletin of experimental Treatment for AIDS; San Francisco: AIDS Foundation.

PSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS FACING ADOLESCENTS
Some analytical considerations
BY
MARISEN MWALE


Adolescents due to the developmental crisis that they are prone to face a myriad of psychosocial challenges. Among the major challenges are:

Juvenile delinquency
Drug and alcohol abuse
Early pregnancy
Sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS

These are considered in this unit.












JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Juvenile delinquency refers to the predisposition to and indulgence in criminal or unlawful activities by children under the age of 18. According to the U.S Bureau of the census [1992] when just serious crimes are considered 28% of these were committed by persons under age 18. This included:

14% of all murders
15% of all rape cases
24% of all robberies
43% of car thefts

In the Malawian scenario, theft, vandalism, teasing and bullying are extremely rampant.


FACTORS CAUSING JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

A myriad of factors have been postulated as causing delinquency among adolescents. However there are three major categories of factors namely:

Psychological
Sociological
Biological



PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

There have been efforts to determine whether certain personality factors predispose the adolescent to delinquency [Holcomb et. al, 1991]. Generally speaking, no one personality type is associated with delinquency, but those who become delinquent are more likely to be impulsive, destructive, suspicious, hostile, resentful, ambivalent to authority, defiant, socially assertive and lack self control [Ashfort et. al, 1990]. Aggressive conduct is associated with delinquent behavior. Delinquency is sometimes a manifestation of hostilities, anxieties, fears or deeper neurosis. In some cases, delinquency is the result of poor socialization that results in adolescents not developing proper impulse control [Sagi, 1982]. Health adolescents may also be mislead by others into delinquency.


SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Family factors, such as strained family relationships and lack of family cohesion, are important sources of delinquency [Kroupa, 1988]. Broken, dysfunctional homes have been associated with delinquency, but are no worse than, and sometimes not as detrimental as, intact but unhappy or disturbed family relationships. Family environment is more important in delinquency than family structure [Leflore, 1988]. One study demonstrated that parental controls are significant inhibitors of delinquency.




Juvenile delinquency is distributed through all socio-economic status levels.
Tygart [1988] for example found that youths of high socio-economic status [SES] were more likely to be involved in school vandalism than youth of low SES. Community and neighborhood influence are also important. Most larger communities have areas in which delinquency rates are higher than in other neighborhoods e.g. shanty towns. Shanty towns are typified by antisocial behaviors as gambling, prostitution, theft and robberies, alcoholism and drug abuse. In Malawi such communities include Ndirande in Blantyre; Chinsapo and Mchesi in Lilongwe; and Masasa in Mzuzu. Some adolescents become delinquent because of antisocial influences of peers.

A high degree of peer orientation is sometimes associated with a high level of delinquency. Modern youth are also influenced by affluent and hedonistic [pleasure seeking] values and lifestyles in their culture. Youth may be encouraged to keep late hours, get into mischief and become involved in vandalism or delinquent acts just for adventure [Renner, 1981]. Violent youth may also have been influenced by the violence they see in the media. May [1986] found that youths who behave in a violent manner give more selective attention to violent cues. They tend to choose to attend movies that are more violent, and imitate what they have seen and heard. Todays adolescents are also living in a period of unrest, disorganization, and rapid cultural change, all of which tend to increase delinquency rates. Alcohol and drug abuse tends to be strongly correlated with delinquency [Stuck et.al, 1985].




The level of school performance is also correlated with delinquency. Inability getting along with teachers and administrators, difficulty adjusting to the school program, classroom misconduct, poor grades and a lack of school success are associated with delinquency.


BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Biological causes may play a role in delinquency [Anolik, 1983].
Mednick and Christiansen [1977], showed that the autonomic nervous system in criminals recovers more slowly from environmental stimulation as compared to that of non-criminals. Slow recovery time reduces the ability to alter their behavior through punishment; thus it becomes more difficult to unlearn delinquent behavior. There is also a possibility that a maturational lag in the development of the frontal lobe of the brain results in neuro-physiological dysfunction and delinquent behavior [Vooless, 1985]. The prefrontal area of the brain is responsible for impulse control. Juveniles are not able to act on the basis of the knowledge they have- they are unable to control their impulses.

According to Sheppard [1974], at least 25% of delinquency can be blamed on organic causes. Hyper-activity from hyper-thyrodism, hyper-glycemia and Diabetes mellitus or Type 2 diabetes can also result in delinquency.
Other research indicates a definite relationship between delinquency and health problems such as neurological, speech, hearing, and visual abnormalities.



PREVENTION

There are several strategies that can be used to mitigate delinquency among adolescents:

One way to prevent delinquency is to identify children [such as hyperactive ones] who may be predisposed to getting into trouble during adolescence and then plan intervention programs to help.

Another preventive measure is to focus on dysfunctional family relationships and assist parents in learning more effective parenting skills.

Anti-social youth may be placed in groups of pro-social peers, such as at day camps where their behavior is influenced positively.

Young children may be placed in pre-school settings before problems arise.

Social skills training may be helpful with some offenders.









DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

Drug and alcohol abuse is one of the risky-taking behaviors among adolescents. Drugs are capable of providing pleasure by giving relaxation and prolonged heightened sensation. Alcohol for example is posited to reduce anxiety. It is argued that this anxiolytic effect works in three dimensions-

By impairing the encoding of information in terms of self-relevance---intoxication decreases self-awareness.
By effecting on attentional capacity.
By effecting on the initial appraisal of stressful information [Sayette, 1993].

Needless to say drug and alcohol abuse stand as a high correlate in other risk behaviors like delinquency and promiscuity. Drugs most commonly abused may be grouped into a number of categories:
Narcotics
Stimulants
Depressants
Hallucinogens
Inhalants

Out of these groups the most frequently abused drugs and substances are alcohol, tobacco, marijuana in that order as well as cocaine although not very commonly abused.

A number of psychological theories have been developed to explain alcohol use and alcoholism. Generally, these theories state that people drink alcohol to increase pleasant feelings [positive reinforcement] or to decrease unpleasant feelings [negative reinforcement]. An attributional self-handicapping model asserts that alcohol can be used in some cases as an excuse for undesirable behavior or negative outcomes.

This approach maintains self-perceptions of competence by providing external attributions for negative behavior [e.g. I was drunk]. Alcohol is most effective as an anodyne, and is most likely to be consumed, following a stressful experience due to the fact that it replenishes endorphin levels following a stressful event [Volpicelli, 1987]. Often consumed to produce positive effects such as enhanced arousal and positive mood. Can enhance feelings of power- this euphoric effect generally appears while blood alcohol concentrations are rising [Marlatt, 1987].















ADDICTION AND DEPENDENCY

A distinction must be made between physical addiction or physical dependency and psychological dependency. Physical addiction is the bodys physical dependency on drugs; such that the human body fails to function properly in the absence of an intoxicating drug. An addictive drug is one that causes the body to build up a chemical dependency to it, so that withdrawal results in unpleasant symptoms [Ralph & Morgan, 1983]. Psychological dependency is the development of a powerful psychological need for a drug resulting in a compulsion to take it [Capuzzi & Lecoqu, 1983].

Drugs become a means of finding relief, comfort, or security. The use of alcohol, for example becomes self-reinforcing when individuals come to believe that it enhances social and physical pleasure or sexual performance, leads to arousal, or to increase in social assertiveness, or reduction in tension [Webb et. al, 1992]. Some individuals become psychologically dependent on drugs that are also physically addictive, such as crack cocaine, alcohol, heroin and nicotine. Dependence is strongly reinforced by the desire to avoid the pain and distress of physical withdrawal. Sometimes physical dependence is broken, but individuals go back to drugs because of psychological dependency on them. It is a mistake, therefore, to assume that the only dangerous drugs are those that are physically addictive.
Youth are trying drugs at tender ages in both rural and urban areas in Malawi.





PATTERNS OF DRUG USE

Five patterns of drug use may be identified according to Pedersen [1990].

Social recreational use

Occurs among acquaintances or friends as a part of socializing. Usually this use does not include addictive drugs and does not escalate in either frequency or intensity to become uncontrolled.

Experimental use

Is motivated primarily by curiosity or by a desire to experience new feelings on a short-term basis. Users rarely use any drugs on a daily basis, and tend not to use drugs to escape the pressures of personal problems. However, if users experiment with physically addictive drugs they may become addicted before they realize it.

Circumstantial situational use

Is indulgence to achieve a known and desired effect. A person may take stimulants to stay awake while driving or studying e.g. amphetamines or may take sedatives to relieve tension and go to sleep. Some persons use drugs to try to escape problems. The danger is that such use will escalate to intensified use.




Intensified drug use

Generally involves using drugs at least once daily over a long period of time to achieve relief from a stressful situation or a persistent problem. Drugs become a customary part of the daily routine. Use may or may not affect functioning depending on the frequency, intensity and amount of use.


Compulsive drug use

Involves both extensive and frequent use for relatively long periods, producing psychological dependence and physiological addiction with discontinuance resulting in psychological stress or physiological discomfort.
The threat of psychological and physical discomfort from withdrawal becomes the motivation for continued use.



CAUSES OF DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ADDICTION

Family origin

The following family factors correlate closely with excessive drug use by adolescents while growing up:

Drug abusers less likely to have open communication with parents [Kafia & London, 1991].

Abusers are usually not as close to their parents, are more likely to have negative adolescent-parent relationships, and have a low degree of parental support.

Abusers are more likely to have parents who drink excessively and/or use other psychotropic drugs [Mc Dermott, 1984; Wodarski, 1990]. Research by Sher [1991] indicates that children of alcoholics are at a heightened risk to develop alcoholism.

Abusers are more likely to come from broken homes or not to live with both parents [Dolerty & Needle, 1991].

Abusers parents less often praise, encourage, and counsel as well as set limits to adolescents behavior [Noam et. al, 1991].

These types of family situations create personality problems that cause individuals to be more likely to turn to drugs. Numerous other studies associate drug addiction and dependency with dysfunctional family relationships and personality problems.








Other social & psychological correlates

Those who abuse drugs are more likely to have peers who use and approve of drug use.

Abusers are more likely to be associated with deviant peers [Simons et.al, 1991].

Abusers are more likely to be in rebellion against social sanctions [Kaplan & Fukurai, 1992].

Abusers are more likely to be truant from school [Pritchart et. al, 1992].

Abusers are more likely to have frequent sex, a greater number of coital partners, and show a greater percentage of unprotected sex [Jemmont et.al 1993].

Research has also documented the relationship between certain personality traits such as impulsivity and habituation to stimuli and the development of alcoholism [Sher, 1991].







EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON ADOLECSENT BEHAVIOR

Alcohol is an extremely powerful drug which is found in beer, wines and spirits such as whisky. It acts primarily to slow down the brains activities. In low quantities alcohol is a stimulant. It has also been proven that alcohol consumption can reduce the risk of developing hypertension as well as heart attack. However taken in large quantities alcohol can damage or even kill biological tissues including muscle and brain cells. The major mental and behavioral effect of alcohol on adolescents is reduced skilled performance. Skills of intellectual functioning such as reading, writing, memory and recall become impaired while behavioral control and judgment become less efficient.

Dementia tremens or alcohol dependence syndrome characterized by strong addiction is the worst effect with an individual failing to function without alcohol. It is characterized by

Continued drinking despite aversive consequences
Liver damage
Peripheral neuropathy
Memory loss







Management of alcoholism

A number of pharmacological treatments continue to be developed to treat alcoholism. Disulfiram [antabuse] has long been used to deter persons from drinking. When alcohol is consumed, antabuse produces an accumulation of the toxic metabolite acetaldehyde, causing nausea and hypotension. If antabuse is reliably used these extremely unpleasant sensations act as aversion therapy----deterring an individual from drinking. Fluoxetine and naltrexone have been posited to reduce alcohol craving and drinking.


Psychosocial interventions

Relapse prevention
Skills training
Self help groups
Cue exposure
Couples therapy/family therapy
Motivation enhancement
Alcohol expectancies






TEENAGE PREGNANCY AMONG ADOLESCENTS

With their developing idealism and ability to think in more abstract and hypothetical ways, young adolescents may get caught up in a mental world far removed from reality. One that may involve a belief that things cannot or will not happen to them and that they are omnipotent and indestructible.
These cognitive changes have intriguing implications for adolescents sexuality and sex education. Having information about contraceptives is not enough- what seems to predict whether or not adolescents will use contraceptives is their acceptance of themselves and their sexuality.

Most discussions of adolescent pregnancy and its prevention assume that adolescents have the ability to anticipate consequences, to weigh the probable outcome of behavior, and project into the future what will happen if they engage in certain acts, such as sexual intercourse. That is, prevention is based on the belief that adolescents have the cognitive ability to approach problem solving in a planned, organized, and analytical manner. However, many adolescents are just beginning to develop these capacities, and others have not developed them at all [Holmbeck, Gasseloski & Crossman, 1989]. The personal fable may be associated with adolescent pregnancy. The young adolescent might say,

Hey, it wont happen to me.

The combination of early physical, maturational, risky-taking behaviors, egocentrism, the inability to think futuristically, and an ambivalent, contradictory culture makes sex difficult for adolescents to handle.

The net increase in premarital sexual intercourse accompanied by a lack of efficient use of contraceptives has resulted in an increase in the incidence of out of wedlock pregnancies. Unmarried motherhood among young teenage girls is a tragedy in most instances.

HAZARDS OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY

The physical, economic, and social hazards that face young mothers and their babies have aroused the concern of many researchers. When the mother is younger than sixteen, her risk of dying during pregnancy or childbirth is extremely pronounced. Extremely young mothers face special risks because their pelvises are immature. The fetal head is often unable to pass safely through the immature pelvis, and so young teenagers are likely to have complicated deliveries and caesarean sections [Killarney, 1983]. No matter what the adolescents age, her chances of developing complications are increased.

Compared with other babies, more babies of adolescent mothers are born dead, and there are more cases of premature birth, low birth weight, respiratory distress syndrome, and neurological defects [Bolton, 1980]. Adolescents face further hazards if they breastfeed their babies. Even though they take dietary supplements, they tend to lose large amounts of calcium and other minerals from their bones [Thomas et.al, 1982]. Because their bones are still growing, it is difficult for adolescent girls to take in enough additional calcium and phosphorus to meet the simultaneous demands of milk production and new bone growth.


Other physiological problems include pregnancy induced hypertension, fistula, anemia, vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and other STIs. Economically most young mothers drop out of school and these young women find themselves trapped in economic insecurity.


HIV/AIDS AND SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE

Adolescents who are sexually active may be susceptible or exposed to sexually transmitted disease including HIV/AIDS.

STDs may include;

Gonorrhea
Chlamydia trachomatis
Urethritis
Chancroid
Herpes
Syphilis
Donovanosis
Warts
Candidiasis



Statistically about 1 in 4 cases of gonorrhea involve an adolescent.
Genital herpes is found in 1 out of every 35 adolescent cases. Syphilis and other STDs are also common among adolescents. Those between 20 and 24 years of age have the highest incidence of STDs followed by the 15-19 age group. With their confounded risk perception, adolescents are vulnerable to contracting HIV/AIDS due to their involvement in unprotected sex. It has been argued that bearing in mind that most AIDS cases occur among the young adults [20-29 and early 30s] and that the incubation period for AIDS may be from a few years to up to 10 years [Wallis, 1987] many with AIDS may have been infected as adolescents.


PREVENTION OF STDS AND EARLY PREGNACY


Sex education

Fears in some quarters that sex education courses increase sexual activity and pregnancy among adolescents seem groundless and unfounded. Compared with adolescents who have not had sex education courses, adolescents who have completed courses show no additional sexual activity.
These students also are less likely to have intercourse without contraceptives [Zelnik & Kim, 1982]. But sex education by itself cannot solve the problem of teenage pregnancies. In the absence of a vaccine or efficacious cure, the prevention of the spread of HIV will for many people require changes in risk-taking behavior.

Behavior modification strategies depend on an appreciation of the complexities of social context, risk and relationships, as well as some impediments to discussing sex and negotiating safer sex practices. This includes an understanding of self-efficacy and social support as sexual behavior is not necessarily the outcome of a consensual and rational decision [Wight, 1992].


Life options approach

Life skills such as assertiveness, communication, positive self concept negotiation, decision making can help the adolescent to refrain from unprotected sexual debuts. Involvement of adolescents in activities as games, sporting activities, drama, and extracurricular clubs like AIDS Toto and Young voices can help ease the sexual tension and take their time from idleness and the drive for sex. This invokes the defense mechanism of sublimation by which adolescents may be encouraged to channel their sexual impulses into activities other than sexual risky behaviors as highlighted above.













Summation

Life skills---------negotiation, assertiveness, refusal, communication.

Cognitive skills---------problem solving, critical thinking, decision making.

Coping skills-------------stress management, increasing internal locus of control.

Practical skills---------abstinence, using a condom.
















BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berger, K [1999] The developing Person: Through Childhood and
Adolescence. New York: Worth Publishers.

Birch, A [1977] Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to
Adulthood. Houndsmill: Macmillan.

Cole, M [1963] Psychology of Adolescence. New York: Holt
Reinehart and Winston, inc.

Cole, M and Cole, S [1993] The Development of Children. New York: W.H.Freeman and Co.

Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman.

Elkind, D [1984] Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.

Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;
Kent: Greengate.

Hall, G.S [1904] Adolescence, Englewood Cliffs, and N.J: Prentice Hall.


Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.

Kaplan, P [1986] Childs Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.

Marcia, J [1980] Ego identity development; in J.Adelson Handbook of Adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.

Module [2001] Adolescent Psychology: Domasi College of
Education.

Mussen, P et al [1980] Essentials of Child Development
and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.

Muuss, R [1996] Theories of Adolescence, New York: The Mc Graw-Hill.


Mwale, M [2008] Behavioural change vis--vis HIV/AIDS Knowledge mismatch among adolescents: The case of some selected schools in Zomba. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 17[4]: 288-299.

Mwale, M [2008] Adolescent risk-perception, cognition and
self-assessment in relation to the HIV/AIDS pandemic: The Case of some selected schools in Zomba, Malawi, Psychology and Developing Societies, 20 [2]: 229-240.


Mwamwenda, S [1990] Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban. Butterworks.

New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.

Nsamenang, A [2000] Adolescence in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Psychology and Developing societies,10[1]: 75-97.

Rogers, C [1969] On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

Santrock, J [1990] Adolescence; Duduque: Wm. C. Brown.

Szekeres, G [2000] HIV in adolescence; Bulletin of experimental Treatment for AIDS; San Francisco: AIDS Foundation.